A002-185-1203_the following parts have some elements without any

目录
一、查词文档 3
1、第一次查词 3
1.1需求基线（Requirements baseline） 3
1.2 概念聚类(Conceptual clustering) 7
1.3图形元素（Graphic elements） 10
1.4状态机（State machine） 13
1.5章节回顾（Chapter Review） 15
1.6对象流（Object Flow） 31
1.7需求工程师（Requirements Engineer） 33
1.8实体关系模型（Entity-relationship model） 34
1.9容错（Fault Tolerance） 43
1.10持久对象（Persistent object） 47
2、第二次查词 54
2.1序列图（Sequence diagram） 54
2.2 系统边界（System Boundary） 57
2.3应用程序域（Application Domain） 60
2.4变更控制板（Change control board） 62
2.5 容错性（Fault tolerance） 67
2.6 异常处理（Exception handler） 71
2.7需求引导（Requirment elicitation） 75
2.8采样观察(Sampling observation) 92
2.9 指导委员会（Steering committee） 94
2.10用例图(Use case diagream) 100
2.11原生数据类型（Primitive date type） 102
2.13可泛化元素（Generalizable element） 106
3、第三次查词 121
3.1 可中断活动区(Interruptible activity region) 121
3.2限定关联 (Qualified association) 124
3.3 演示原型(Breadboard prototype) 126
3.4 编程系统(Programming system) 130
3.5自由度 (Degree of freedom) 134
3.6 垂直原型(Vertical prototype) 141
3.7 实体生命史(Entity Life History) 143
3.8 企业建模(Enterprise modeling) 145
3.9 参与约束(Participant constraint) 147
3.10概念域（Concepet domain） 152
3.11 经典分类理论(Classical categorization theory) 154
3.12 数据驱动(Data -drive) 160
4、第四次查词 163
4.1接收事件动作(Accept event action) 163
4.2功能层次图(Function Heirarchy Diagram) 166
4.3复合属性(Composite Attribute) 168
4.4对象约束语言(Object Constrain Language) 172
4.5抽象用例(Abstract use case) 177
4.6关键区域(Critical region) 179
4.7同级评审(Peer review) 183
4.8需求跟踪（Requirement traceability） 190
4.9分布式协同(Distributed coordination) 193
4.10业务流程改造(Business Process Reengineering) 196
二、报告档 204
1、需求分析与建模读书心得 204
2、图书销售系统项目的发展建议 207

一、查词文档
1、第一次查词
1.1需求基线（Requirements baseline）
【解释】A requirements baseline is a snapshot in time that represents an agreed-upon, reviewed, and approved set of requirements that have been committed to a specific product release.

需求基线是时间快照，表示已提交到特定产品发布的一组已商定的、经过审核的和已批准的要求。

【链接】
https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/SSYMRC_7.0.1/com.ibm.rational.rrm.help.doc/topics/c_snapshots.html
https://reqexperts.com/2015/09/30/why-do-i-need-to-baseline-my-requirements/
https://cabforum.org/baseline-requirements/

【正文】
A baseline is given a unique name so that the project participants can refer to it unambiguously. Good configuration management practices allow the team to reconstruct accurately any previous baseline and all its components.
A requirements baseline is a snapshot in time that represents the agreed-upon, reviewed, and approved set of requirements committed to a specific product release. That “release” could be a complete delivered product or any interim development increment of the product. When stakeholders “sign off” on requirements, what they’re really doing is agreeing and committing to a specific requirements baseline (whether they think of it in those terms or not).

【翻译】
需求基线是时间快照，表示承诺特定产品发布的商定、审核和已批准的一组要求。该"发布"可能是产品的完整交付产品或产品的任何临时开发增量。当利益相关者"签署"需求时，他们真正所做的是同意并致力于特定的需求基线（无论他们是否从这些术语中考虑）。
一旦项目团队建立了需求基线，团队就应遵循务实的变更控制流程，就添加新请求的功能以及更改或删除现有需求做出良好的业务和技术决策。更改控制不是要扼杀变革。这是关于向决策者提供信息，让他们及时做出适当的决策来修改计划的功能。计划的功能是基线。

1.1 状态图（Statechart diagram）
【解释】
Statechart diagram describes the flow of control from one state to another state. States are defined as a condition in which an object exists and it changes when some event is triggered.
状态图描述了从一种状态到另一种状态的控制流。状态定义为对象存在的条件，当触发某些事件时，状态会更改。
【链接】
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/uml/uml_statechart_diagram.htm
https://www.smartdraw.com/state-diagram/
https://sourcemaking.com/uml/modeling-it-systems/the-behavioral-view/statechart-diagram
【正文】
Statechart diagrams are also used for forward and reverse engineering of a system. However, the main purpose is to model the reactive system.
Following are the main purposes of using Statechart diagrams −
• To model the dynamic aspect of a system.
• To model the life time of a reactive system.
• To describe different states of an object during its life time.
• Define a state machine to model the states of an object.

【翻译】
状态图用于描述不同对象在其生命周期中的状态。重点放在某些内部或外部事件的状态更改上。这些对象状态对于准确分析和实现它们非常重要。
状态图对于描述状态非常重要。当发生特定事件时，状态可以标识为对象的条件。
在绘制状态图图之前，我们应澄清以下几点 |
• 确定要分析的重要对象。
• 确定状态。
• 确定事件。

1.2 概念聚类(Conceptual clustering)
【解释】
Conceptual clustering is obviously closely related to data clustering; however, in conceptual clustering it is not only the inherent structure of the data that drives cluster formation, but also the description language which is available to the learner.

概念聚类显然与数据聚类密切相关;但是，在概念聚类中，驱动聚类形成的不仅是数据的内在结构，也是学习者可用的描述语言。
【链接】
https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Conceptual_clustering

https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-642-55038-6_1

https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Conceptual+clustering

【正文】
Conceptual clustering has proved an effective means of summarizing data in an understandable manner. However, the recency of the conceptual clustering paradigm has allowed little exploration of conceptual clustering as a means of improving performance. This paper describes results obtained by COBWEB, a conceptual clustering system that organizes data so as to maximize inference abilities. The performance task for COBWEB (and implied for all conceptual clustering systems) generalizes the performance requirements typically associated with the better known task of learning from examples. Furthermore, criteria aimed at improving inference seem compatible with traditional conceptual clustering virtues of conceptual simplicity and comprehensibility.

【翻译】
概念聚类已证明以可以理解的方式汇总数据的有效方法。然而，概念聚类范式的重新性使得对概念聚类作为提高性能的手段的探索很少。本文介绍了COBWEB（一种组织数据以最大限度地提高推理能力的概念聚类系统）获得的结果。COBWEB 的性能任务（并暗示适用于所有概念聚类系统）概括了通常与已知任务相关的性能要求。从示例中学习。此外，旨在改进推理的标准似乎符合概念简单性和可理解性的传统概念聚类美德。

1.3图形元素（Graphic elements）
【解释】
Graphic elements means the use of any image or graphic display in advertising material, including photographs, drawings, X-rays, graphs and bar charts, but excluding any related advertising texts.

图形元素是指在广告材料中使用任何图像或图形显示，包括照片、图纸、X光、图形和条形图，但不包括任何相关的广告文本。

【链接】
https://www.unahealydesign.com/elements-of-good-graphic-design/#:~:text=The%207%20Elements%20of%20Good%20Graphic%20Design%201,surface%20of%20an%20object.%20…%20More%20items…%20
https://www.lawinsider.com/dictionary/graphic-elements
【正文】
Our library of graphic elements is borne of instructional elements—serving to illustrate the ideas of both “here” and “how.”
This collection of treatments can be used to reinforce hierarchy, guide the viewer, create connections and add emphasis. All graphic elements should be used in strict accordance with these guidelines, to help establish consistency and to make UB communications instantly recognizable.
Our graphic elements
Our brand has a number of graphic tools that create a unique look and make us distinct from our peers and instantly recognizable. When they’re used consistently, these elements create continuity within our family of materials, across a variety of media.
Lines and Bullets
Use these elements to establish hierarchy, direct the eye, connect disparate elements and call out key information.

Patterns
Our graphic elements can be combined to complement our story through patterns of varying complexity.
Charts and Graphs
See how UB’s visual vocabulary translates into compelling information graphics through pie, bar and line charts.
Supporting Graphics
Guidelines for creating supporting graphics.

【翻译】
我们的图形元素
我们的品牌拥有许多图形工具，可打造独特的外观，使我们与众不同，并立即识别。当它们得到一致使用时，这些元素会在我们的材料系列中，在各种介质中创造连续性。
行和项目符号
使用这些元素建立层次结构、引导眼睛、连接不同的元素并调用关键信息。
模式
我们的图形元素可以结合，通过不同复杂度的模式来补充我们的故事。
图表和图形
了解 UB 的视觉词汇如何通过饼图、条形图和折线图转换为引人注目的信息图形。
支持图形
创建支持图形的指南。

1.4状态机（State machine）
【解释】
A state machine is a concept used in designing computer programs or digital logic.
状态机是用于设计计算机程序或数字逻辑的概念。

【链接】
https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/state-machine
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/16447/state-machine
https://statecharts.github.io/what-is-a-state-machine.html

【正文】
There are two types of state machines: finite and infinite state machines. The former is comprised of a finite number of states, transitions, and actions that can be modeled with flow graphs, where the path of logic can be detected when conditions are met. The latter is not practically used.
A state machine is any device storing the status of something at a given time. The status changes based on inputs, providing the resulting output for the implemented changes. A finite state machine has finite internal memory. Input symbols are read in a sequence producing an output feature in the form of a user interface.
State machines are represented using state diagrams. The output of a state machine is a function of the input and the current state. State machines play a significant role in areas such as electrical engineering, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, biology, mathematics, and logic. They are best used in the modeling of application behavior, software engineering, design of hardware digital systems, network protocols, compilers, and the study of computation and languages.

【翻译】
有两种类型的状态机：有限和无限状态机。前者由有限数量状态、转换和操作组成，这些状态、转换和操作可以使用流图进行建模，在满足条件时可以检测到逻辑路径。后者实际上没有使用。状态机是任何在给定时间存储某样东西状态的设备。状态根据输入更改，为实现的更改提供生成的输出。有限状态机具有有限的内部存储器。输入符号以用户界面的形式生成输出要素的顺序进行读取。
状态机使用状态图表示。状态机的输出是输入和当前状态的函数。国家机器在电气工程、语言学、计算机科学、哲学、生物学、数学和逻辑等领域发挥着重要作用。它们最好用于应用程序行为建模、软件工程、硬件数字系统设计、网络协议、编译器以及计算和语言研究。

1.5章节回顾（Chapter Review）
【解释】
The goal of this project is to share your viewpoint of the literature work or some part of it (chapter) while supporting your opinion with strong evidence taken from the text directly.
这个项目的目标是分享你对文学作品或部分文学作品（章节）的看法，同时通过直接从文本中获得有力证据支持您的观点。
【链接】
https://www.visual-paradigm.com/guide/uml-unified-modeling-language/what-is-state-machine-diagram/
https://howtowrite.customwritings.com/post/write-book-chapter-review/
【正文】
Writing a review for a book chapter is not as simple as you may perceive it to be. So, you’ve just finished reading the whole chapter and now you’re about to produce a short analysis that contains all important details of it. First of all, you have to keep in mind that squeezing the whole chapter into five or six paragraphs takes time and expertise to do. Besides, the book chapter review is not supposed to be extensively detailed. It means you should be careful and never put in every single issue you encounter in the chapter. Instead, your task is to write a conclusive analysis of the most crucial aspects of the given part of the book reviewed.
Typically, your book chapter review should contain info about what the part was about, the main topic that the author discusses in the chapter, the insights of the author, as well as the so-called lesson that readers take away from the chapter. The take-away lesson will serve as a strong foundation for your conclusion; keep that in mind.
Let’s check four steps that you have to take one at a time in order to write a reliable book chapter review. But before that, it is worth noting that it’s never a good idea to begin writing the review with no preparation. You should begin by writing a rough draft, consisting of all your notes taken while were reviewing the chapter. Before writing the draft, you could also outline your future review. Write down your ideas in the order that they should appear in the paper. This should be then followed by overviewing the chapter and asking yourself a few questions the answer to which will help you to understand the chapter better. One such question is what the title of the chapter promises it will explore and the audience that the book is targeting.
Step 1. In a perfect world, you have enough time to read the whole book. Having a complete picture in your head will help you immerse yourself in the story and get to the core of what the author is trying to say in the written piece.
Step 2. Read the chapter once again. This time, do it with a critical eye. Consider and highlight the things you believe are important. Be attentive during your reading sessions, and make sure to take notes of what matters to you (and will later to your readers). This is what they call “annotation.”
Step 3. Write a thesis statement. It must include a subject of your review and opinion. While the subject here is the book chapter under review, your opinion is an explanation of how this very chapter contributes to the general picture or for what purpose the author used some literary devices.
If literary devices aren’t your strong suit, we have some examples to ease the process:
The last chapter of “Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows” written by J.K. Rowling shows Harry as the symbol of light and hope in the world full of evils powers.
The author uses allusions in the book. Even the title of it “Gone with the Wind” is an allusion itself to the poem written by Ernest Dowson. His work is like crying for lost love that definitely has something to do with the story by Margaret Mitchell.
In “Frankenstein,” the author Mary Shelley employs many devices, especially the one called ethos. In a famous story, ethos is used at the very beginning of the novel, where the letters written by Walton to his sister show affection and deep love. This adds certain credibility to the story of Victor and then to his monster. By using ethos, Shelley provides her readers with an opportunity to be outside of the plot and at the same time, to remain as close to the characters as possible.
In Margaret Mitchell’s “Gone with the Wind,” the author uses imagery throughout her work. In the novel, Mitchell uses descriptions and visceral sounds generously to capture the spirit of the time together with the horrors of war.
Don’t underestimate the power of a sound thesis statement. The point is that the success of every word you’re going to produce from this part will result from the success of your thesis statement.
Step 4. Learning how to write a good book chapter review is impossible without a solid outline. What makes a sound outline? Let’s find it out below.
A. Provide a topic sentence for the 1st body paragraph. Use it to support your thesis statement. For instance: Telling the story of her life in the first person, Jane Eyre recalls how as an orphan since infancy, she has been raised by Mrs. Reed, who was her maternal uncle’s wife.
At this point, you have to provide your first portion of the evidence. The latter, by the way, should be taken from the chapter under review. Use a specific fact, a direct quotation, or a short summary. Ensure you don’t confuse your target readers with unnecessary facts or an unlimited flow of information.
B. Main points. Choose four or five major points and let your readers know how the author of the book supports each. Provide a separate paragraph for every main point. You’re basically writing the other type of college essay.
C. Author. At the point, you talk about the professional experience, background, and qualifications of the author that together helped to create this work of literary art. Check online sources or library materials for more information. Mind that each source that you use should be provided with appropriate credit.
D. Your evaluation. What did you manage to learn from this chapter? If it’s the first chapter from “Romeo and Juliet” that you’re reviewing, you may let your readers know that you’ve got to know that the ending of the love story is actually revealed at the beginning of it – right in the prologue. Tell your readers that when the Chorus sings, “From forth the fatal loins of these two foes/A pair of star-crossed lovers take their life,” it clearly tells us what kind of tragedy to expect at the end of the story.
Was the chapter clearly written? Did the author open up the issue the way you expected? Is this chapter relevant to modern life?
E. Conclude your book chapter review. Did the author succeed in accomplishing the key purpose of the chapter? Would you recommend this book to the other students? If yes/no, why?
Choose the Topic
Although the book chapter review differs from a standard college essay, the process of preparation, writing, and editing is pretty much the same. Just like in the case with the essay, you have to choose a sound topic that will interest your reader. In the process, be careful to avoid spoilers. Readers hate spoilers, and if you fail to provide one, they are not going to forgive you! Choose the topic for your review so that you don’t rob your reader of that unique surprise reaction. If there’s sudden death, a shocking twist, or a surprise come back in the chapter under review, don’t let your readers guess that right from your title.
At the same time, it is important to make your topic hooking and inspiring to make your readers want to know more.
Find Your Genuine Voice
Many readers decide to read more than just a title of your book chapter review because they enjoy unique reviewing styles. Celebrate your unique review style and give the vision that no one else can offer. This is especially crucial if you want to be honest in your writing, so ensure to make it personal. Don’t get frustrated if it doesn’t happen at once. There’s always time to rewrite, fix, hone your unique voice, and keep on working on it.
Know Your Audience
It is important to know the kind of audience even if you are reviewing only a part of the book since it will give you an idea of what kind of language to use. You should then read the chapter of the book once again and afterward, reevaluate its content. When you are reading the chapter and taking notes, always leave some space between the lines, so you can later add ideas or correct any misunderstandings that your readers might experience. It is also important to mention that you should remember that it is the book chapter review that you are writing – not a critique or summary. Keep in mind your target audience and be careful of what information you include. Make sure you don’t overload the paper with your personal opinions. Be as neutral as possible.
Read the Other Reviews
Do some online search to find internet resources with book reviews. Choose the examples that you think are relevant to your topic and effective to your writing. Save several reviews that deserve more attention than the rest. Ask yourself what it is that you like about this or that work, as well as come up with a way to discuss the same issues in a unique way in your own review. Maybe you’re impressed with all those accurate characters’ descriptions, virtuous plot summaries, or writing styles that all seem to have a confident voice. Or, perhaps, you are swayed by controversial or humor-based reviews. Finally, maybe only book chapter reviews with a serious tone are the ones to keep your attention. Whatever it is that you choose to use as your inspo, feel free to apply all these techniques to make your own writing stronger and more successful.
Edit and Proofread before Submitting
The quality of your book chapter review strongly depends on the effort you put into writing. The fastest way to lose your chances for A+ is to submit a review that is full of typos and errors. Before your tutor takes a look at your text, make sure to give your work a final read to detect any grammar or spelling mistakes. Also, make sure to check the stats and facts that you include, the names of the characters, places, and the author. The last thing you want is your professor catching the silliest mistake in your work and refusing to read further because the character named Hermione Greinger does not exist.

【翻译】
写书章的评论不像你所认为的那么简单。所以，你刚刚读完了整章，现在你将生成一个简短的分析，其中包含它的所有重要细节。首先，你必须记住，把整章压缩成五六段需要时间和专业知识。此外，书章复习不应详细。这意味着你应该小心，永远不要把每一个问题，你遇到的章节。相反，你的任务是写一个结论性的分析，在这本书的给定部分审查的最关键方面。
通常，您的书章回顾应包含有关该部分的内容、作者在章节中讨论的主要主题、作者的见解以及读者从章节中吸取的所谓的教训的信息。收天走的教训将成为你结论的坚实基础;记住这一点。
让我们检查四个步骤，你必须采取一次一个，以写一个可靠的书章评论。但在此之前，值得注意的是，在没有任何准备地开始撰写评论从来就不是个好主意。你应该先写一个草稿，包括你在复习本章时做的所有笔记。在撰写草稿之前，您还可以概述您未来的复习。按在论文中出现的顺序写下你的想法。然后，应该概述一章，并问自己几个问题的答案，这将有助于你更好地理解这一章。其中一个问题是，该章的标题承诺它将探索什么，以及这本书的目标受众。
第 1 步。在一个完美的世界，你有足够的时间阅读整本书。头脑中写一张完整的图画，会帮助你沉浸在故事中，并了解作者在书面文章中试图说的话的核心。
第 2 步。再次阅读本章。这一次，用批判的眼光去做。考虑并突出你认为重要的事情。在阅读过程中要留心，并注意什么对你很重要（稍后对读者会重要）。这就是他们所说的"注释"。
第 3 步。写论文陈述。它必须包括您的评论和意见的主题。虽然这里的主题是正在审查的书章，但您的意见是解释这一章如何有助于一般的画面，或作者使用一些文学装置的目的。
如果文学设备不是您的强项，我们有一些例子来简化这个过程：
J.K.罗琳写的《哈利·波特与死亡圣器》的最后一章，将哈利视为充满邪恶力量的世界上光明和希望的象征。
作者在书中使用了一些名著。甚至它的标题"与风一起走"也是欧内斯特·道森所写的诗本身的一个指法。他的工作就像为失去的爱而哭泣， 这绝对与玛格丽特 · 米切尔的故事有关。
在《弗兰肯斯坦》中，作者玛丽·雪莱使用许多设备，尤其是所谓的精神装置。在一个著名的故事中，精神在小说的开头被使用，沃尔顿写给他姐姐的信表现出爱和深深的爱。这为维克多的故事，然后他的怪物增加了一定的可信度。通过运用精神，雪莱为读者提供了一个机会，让她在情节之外，同时，尽可能接近人物。
在玛格丽特·米切尔的《风中消失》中，作者在她的整个作品中使用了图像。在小说中，米切尔慷慨地用描述和内脏的声音来捕捉时代的精神和战争的恐怖。
不要低估一个健全的论文陈述的力量。关键是，你将从这一部分产生的每个单词的成功都源于你的论文陈述的成功。
第 4 步。学习如何写一本好书章复习是不可能的，没有扎实的轮廓。是什么造就了一个声音轮廓？让我们在下面找到它。
A.为第一正文段落提供主题句。使用它来支持你的论文陈述。例如：简·爱以第一人称讲述她的生活故事，她回忆起她自幼时作为孤儿时，由里德夫人抚养长大，她是她叔叔的妻子。
此时，您必须提供证据的第一部分。顺便说一下，后者应取自所审查的一章。使用特定事实、直接引文或简短摘要。确保您不会将目标读者与不必要的事实或无限的信息流混淆。
B.要点。选择四个或五个主要点，让读者知道这本书的作者如何支持每一个点。为每个要点提供单独的段落。你基本上是在写另一种类型的大学论文。
C.作者。此时，您谈论作者的专业经验、背景和资历，这些经验、背景和资历共同帮助创作了这一文学艺术作品。有关详细信息，请查看在线来源或图书馆材料。请注意，您使用的每个来源都应获得适当的信用。
D.您的评估。您从本章中学到了什么？如果这是你正在审查的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的第一章，你可以让读者知道你必须知道爱情故事的结尾实际上是在故事的开头——就在开场白中。告诉你的读者，当合唱团唱，"从这两个敌人的致命腰/一对星交叉的恋人采取他们的生命，"它清楚地告诉我们什么样的悲剧期待在故事的结尾。
这一章写得清楚了吗？作者的问题还是以你预期的方式打开的？这一章与现代生活有关吗？
E.结束你的书章复习。作者是否成功地完成了本章的关键目的？你会把这本书推荐给其他学生吗？如果是/否，为什么？
选择主题
虽然书章复习与标准大学论文不同，但准备、写作和编辑的过程几乎是一样的。就像这篇文章的情况一样，你必须选择一个让你的读者感兴趣的好话题。在这个过程中，小心避免扰流板。读者讨厌破坏者， 如果你不提供一个， 他们不会原谅你！选择评论的主题，这样您就不会剥夺读者那独特的惊喜反应。如果有突然死亡，一个令人震惊的转折，或一个惊喜回来的章节审查，不要让你的读者猜测，从你的标题的权利。
同时，重要的是让你的主题挂钩和鼓舞人心，让你的读者想知道更多。
找到您的真音
许多读者决定阅读的不仅仅是你的书章评论的标题，因为他们喜欢独特的复习风格。庆祝你独特的复习风格，并给出别人无法提供的愿景。如果你想在写作中诚实，这一点尤其重要，所以要确保把它作为个人作品。不要沮丧，如果它不发生一次。总是有时间重写，修复，磨练你独特的声音，并继续努力。
了解您的受众
重要的是要了解什么样的观众，即使你只审查这本书的一部分，因为它会给你一个想法，什么样的语言使用。然后，您应该再次阅读本书的章节，然后重新评估其内容。当您阅读章节和做笔记时，始终在行之间留一些空间，以便以后可以添加想法或纠正读者可能遇到的任何误解。同样重要的是要提一下，你应该记住，这是书章评论，你写的 - 而不是批评或总结。请记住您的目标受众，并小心您包含哪些信息。确保你不要把论文与个人观点过载。尽可能保持中立。
阅读其他评论
做一些在线搜索，找到互联网资源与书评。选择您认为与主题相关且与写作有效的示例。保存几个比其他人更值得关注的评论。问问自己，你喜欢这个或那个工作是什么，以及想出一种方法来讨论同样的问题，在你自己的审查以独特的方式。也许你对所有这些准确的人物的描述，良性的情节摘要，或写作风格印象深刻，所有似乎都有一个自信的声音。或者，也许，你被有争议的或基于幽默的评论所左右。最后，也许只有书章评论与认真的语气是那些保持你的注意力。无论你选择使用什么作为你的 inspo， 请随时应用所有这些技术， 使你自己的写作更强大， 更成功。
提交前编辑和校对
你的书章复习的质量在很大程度上取决于你的写作努力。失去 A+ 机会的最快方式是提交充满拼写错误和错误的评论。在导师查看您的文本之前，请务必对您的作品进行最后阅读，以检测任何语法或拼写错误。此外，请务必检查您包括的统计数据和事实、字符、地点和作者的姓名。你最不想要的就是你的教授抓住你工作中最愚蠢的错误，拒绝进一步阅读，因为那个名叫赫敏·格林格的角色并不存在。
可以理解的是，要在简单的复习中投入很多精力，这本书应该让你感兴趣。如果不喜欢这本书，试着选一个引起你注意的章节。如果你别无选择，你不知道从哪里开始，总是有选择订购援助在我们的网站上。只需几个简单的步骤完成订单表，支付您的订单费用，我们将指定一个合适的作者来帮助您解决您的问题。如果您需要专业的书评帮助 – 试试我们的论文写作服务！

1.6对象流（Object Flow）
【解释】
Object Flows are used in Activity diagrams and StateMachine diagrams. When used in an Activity diagram, an Object Flow connects two elements, with specific data passing through it, modeling an active transition.

对象流用于活动图和状态机图。在活动图中使用时，对象流连接两个元素，其中特定数据通过它，对活动过渡进行建模。
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【链接】
https://docs.nomagic.com/display/MD190/Object+Flow
https://stackoverflow.com/questions/6309589/uml-control-flow-and-object-flow
https://www.sparxsystems.com/enterprise_architect_user_guide/14.0/model_domains/objectflow.html

【正文】
In StateMachine diagrams, an Object Flow is a specification of a state flow or transition. It implies the passing of an Object instance between elements at run-time.
You can insert an Object Flow from the ‘State’ or ‘Activity’ pages of the Toolbox, or from the drop-down list of all relationships located in the header toolbar. You can also modify a transition connection to an Object Flow by selecting the ‘ObjectFlow’ checkbox on the connection ‘Properties’ dialog.

【翻译】
在 StateMachine 关系图中，对象流是状态流或转换的规范。它意味着在运行时在元素之间传递 Object 实例。
可以从工具箱的"状态"或"活动"页面或位于标题工具栏中的所有关系的下拉列表中插入对象流。您还可以通过选择连接"属性"对话框上的"对象流"复选框来修改对象流的过渡连接。
有关在对象流上设置护罩和权重的信息，请参阅"控制流"主题。

1.7需求工程师（Requirements Engineer）
【解释】
The Requirements Engineer is responsible for collecting, structure and monitore the stakeholder requirements during the complete lifecycle processes.
需求工程师负责收集、构建和监控整个生命周期流程中的利益相关者需求。
【链接】
https://www.rgf-professional.com.cn/jobs/3683-senior-requirements-engineer

【正文】
The Requirements Engineer is responsible for collecting, structure and monitore the stakeholder requirements during the complete lifecycle processes. The Requirements engineer must be capable of analyzing requirements and breakdown/rewrite stakeholder requirements in order to ensure clearness and testability.

【翻译】
需求工程师负责收集、构建和监控整个生命周期流程中的利益相关者需求。需求工程师必须能够分析需求并分解/重写利益相关者要求，以确保清晰性和可测试性。

1.8实体关系模型（Entity-relationship model）
【解释】

实体关系模型是一种在软件开发中显示数据关系的理论和概念方法。是一种数据库建模技术，它生成系统数据的抽象图或可视化表示形式，有助于设计关系数据库。
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【链接】
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/7057/entity-relationship-model-er-model
https://diagram.homeurl.us/er-diagram-wiring-diagram-download-free/
http://faculty.juniata.edu/rhodes/dbms/ermodel.htm
【正文】
The ER diagram is used to represent the relationship exist among the entity set. The entity set is considered as a group of entities of similar type which contains attributes. According to the database system management system the entity is considered as table and attributes are columns of a table. So the ER diagram shows the relationship among tables in the database. The entity is considered a real-world object which is stored physically in the database. The entities have attributes that help to uniquely identify the entity. The entity set can be considered as a collection of similar types of entities.
Components of Entity-Relationship Model
The ER model is used as a conceptual view of the database. The ER model consist of real-world entities and the related associations exist between them. The ER model gives the complete idea of a database used for any application and it is very easy to understand. The below section contains information about the components of the ER diagram.

1. Entity
   The entity is considered as a real-world object which can be anything like any object which can be identified easily. For example, in an employee database, employee details, location, contact details can be considered as entities of an employee database. All type of entities has some attributes or the properties which will help to give the proper idea of the entity. The entity set can be considered as a collection of similar types of entities. In the entity set, there can be some entities exist which can contain similar type of values. For example, the employee set will contain information from all employees. The entity set does not require to be disjoint.
   • Weak entity: The weak entity is considered an entity that can’t be easily chosen by its attribute and which required some relationship with some other entity. This type of entity is known as a weak entity. In the ER diagram, the double rectangle is used for representing a weak entity. For example- if there is only a bank account then it is considered as a weak entity as the bank account cannot be identified which bank the bank account belongs to.
2. Attributes
   The entities are represented using some properties and these properties are known as attributes. All the attributes have some value. For example- the employee entity can have the following attributes – employee name, employee age, employee contact details. For the attributes, there can be considered as a domain of values that can be allocated to the attribute. For example, the employee name cannot be assigned some numeric value. The employee name should always be alphabetic. The employee age cannot be in a negative number it should always be positive.
   Types of Attribute
   The types of attributes are given below:
3. Simple attribute: The simple attribute can be considered as atomic values that can’t be further segregated. For example- the employee phone number cannot be further segregate to some other attribute.
4. Composite attribute: The composite attribute contains more than one attribute in the group. For example, the employee name attribute can be considered as a composite attribute as the employee name can be further segregated to a first name and last name.
5. Derived attribute: The derived attribute is the type of attribute which does not exist in the database physically, however, the values derived are from the other database which is present in the database physically. For eg; the average salary of an employee is derived attribute as it is directly not stored in the database. The value can e derived from other attributes present in the database physically.
6. Single value attribute: The single attribute contains a single value. For example -the security number.
7. Multi-value attribute: The multi-value attribute means the attribute which contains more than value. For example, the employee can have more than one email id and phone number.
8. Relationship
   The relationship is another type of component of the ER diagram which is used to show the dependency among the entities of the database. In the ER diagram, the relationship is represented by a diamond-shaped box. All the relationship which exist between the entities is connected by a line which shows in the ER diagram.
   There are different type of relationship which are discussed below:
   • One-to-one: In this relationship, the one entity is related to some other entity is a one-to-one relationship. For eg; an individual has a passport and the passport is allocated to one individual.
   • Many-to-one: In this relationship, when many instances of an entity are linked to one entity. For eg; many students can read in one college.
   • One-to-many: When one entity is linked to more than one entity is a one-to-many relationship. For eg; one customer placed multiple orders.
   • Many-to-many: When many entities are linked to many entities is known as many-to-many relationships. For eg; students can have multiple projects and the project is allocated to multiple students.
   【翻译】
   实体集被视为包含属性的类似类型的实体组。根据数据库系统管理系统，实体被视为表，属性是表的列。因此，ER 图显示了数据库中表之间的关系。实体被视为实际对象，以物理方式存储在数据库中。实体具有有助于唯一标识实体的属性。实体集可视为类似类型的实体的集合。
   实体关系模型的组件
   ER 模型用作数据库的概念视图。ER 模型由真实实体组成，它们之间存在相关关联。ER 模型给出了用于任何应用程序的数据库的完整想法，并且很容易理解。以下部分包含有关 ER 关系图组件的信息。
9. 实体
   该实体被视为真实世界的对象，可以像任何易于识别的对象一样。例如，在员工数据库中，员工详细信息、位置、联系方式可视为员工数据库的实体。所有类型的实体都有一些属性或属性，这将有助于给出实体的正确思路。实体集可视为类似类型的实体的集合。在实体集中，可能存在一些实体，这些实体可以包含类似类型的值。例如，员工集将包含来自所有员工的信息。实体集不需要不相交。
   • 弱实体：弱实体被视为无法由其属性轻易选择的实体，并且需要与其他某些实体建立某种关系。这种类型的实体称为弱实体。在 ER 图中，双矩形用于表示弱实体。例如，如果只有银行帐户，则它被视为弱实体，因为无法识别银行帐户属于哪个银行。
10. 属性
    实体使用某些属性表示，这些属性称为属性。所有属性都有一定的价值。例如，员工实体可以具有以下属性： 员工姓名、员工年龄、员工联系方式。对于属性，可以视为可分配给属性的值域。例如，不能为员工姓名分配某些数值。员工姓名应始终为字母。员工年龄不能为负数，应始终为正值。
    属性类型
    属性的类型如下：
11. 简单属性：简单属性可视为无法进一步隔离的原子值。例如 - 员工电话号码不能进一步与某些其他属性隔离。
12. 复合属性：复合属性包含组中的多个属性。例如，员工姓名属性可视为复合属性，因为员工姓名可以进一步与名字和姓氏隔离。
13. 派生属性：派生属性是物理数据库中不存在的属性类型，但是，派生的值来自数据库中物理上存在的其他数据库。例如;员工的平均工资是派生属性，因为它直接不存储在数据库中。该值可以从数据库中存在的其他属性物理派生。
14. 单个值属性：单个属性包含单个值。例如 - 安全号码。
15. 多值属性：多值属性是指包含多个值的属性。例如，员工可以具有多个电子邮件 ID 和电话号码。
16. 关系
    关系是 ER 关系图的另一种组件，用于显示数据库实体之间的依赖关系。在 ER 图中，关系由菱形框表示。实体之间存在的所有关系都通过 ER 关系图中显示的行进行连接。
    下面将讨论不同类型的关系：
    • 一对一：在此关系中，一个实体与某些其他实体是一对一关系相关。例如;个人有护照，护照分配给个人。
    • 多对一：在此关系中，当实体的许多实例链接到一个实体时。例如;许多学生可以在一所大学读书。
    • 一对多：当一个实体链接到多个实体时，是一对多关系。例如;一个客户下了多个订单。
    • 多对多：当许多实体链接到许多实体时，称为多对多关系。例如;学生可以有多个项目，并且项目分配给多个学生。

1.9容错（Fault Tolerance）
【解释】
Fault Tolerance simply means a system’s ability to continue operating uninterrupted despite the failure of one or more of its components. This is true whether it is a computer system, a cloud cluster, a network, or something else. In other words, fault tolerance refers to how an operating system (OS) responds to and allows for software or hardware malfunctions and failures.
容错只是意味着系统能够继续不间断地运行，尽管其一个或多个组件出现故障。无论是计算机系统、云群集、网络还是其他设备，都是正确的。换句话说，容错是指操作系统如何响应并允许软件或硬件故障和故障。

【链接】
https://avinetworks.com/glossary/fault-tolerance/
https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/f/faulttol.htm
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/3362/fault-tolerance

【正文】
The goal of fault tolerant computer systems is to ensure business continuity and high availability by preventing disruptions arising from a single point of failure. Fault tolerance solutions therefore tend to focus most on mission-critical applications or systems.
Fault tolerant computing may include several levels of tolerance:
• At the lowest level, the ability to respond to a power failure, for example.
• A step up: during a system failure, the ability to use a backup system immediately.
• Enhanced fault tolerance: a disk fails, and mirrored disks take over for it immediately. This provides functionality despite partial system failure, or graceful degradation, rather than an immediate breakdown and loss of function.
• High level fault tolerant computing: multiple processors collaborate to scan data and output to detect errors, and then immediately correct them.
Fault tolerance software may be part of the OS interface, allowing the programmer to check critical data at specific points during a transaction.
Fault-tolerant systems ensure no break in service by using backup components that take the place of failed components automatically. These may include:
• Hardware systems with identical or equivalent backup operating systems. For example, a server with an identical fault tolerant server mirroring all operations in backup, running in parallel, is fault tolerant. By eliminating single points of failure, hardware fault tolerance in the form of redundancy can make any component or system far safer and more reliable.
• Software systems backed up by other instances of software. For example, if you replicate your customer database continuously, operations in the primary database can be automatically redirected to the second database if the first goes down.
• Redundant power sources can help avoid a system fault if alternative sources can take over automatically during power failures, ensuring no loss of service.

【翻译】
容错计算机系统的目标是通过防止单点故障导致的中断来确保业务连续性和高可用性。因此，容错解决方案往往主要侧重于关键任务应用程序或系统。
容错计算可能包括几个级别的容差：
• 例如，在最低级别，响应电源故障的能力。
• 一步：在系统故障期间，能够立即使用备份系统。
• 增强的容错：磁盘发生故障，镜像磁盘会立即接管它。这提供了功能，尽管部分系统故障，或正常降级，而不是立即崩溃和功能丢失。
• 高级容错计算：多个处理器协作扫描数据和输出以检测错误，然后立即更正错误。
容错软件可能是操作系统接口的一部分，允许程序员在事务期间检查特定点的关键数据。
容错系统通过使用自动代替故障组件的备份组件，确保不会中断服务。这些可能包括：
• 具有相同或等效备份操作系统的硬件系统。例如，具有相同容错服务器的服务器镜像备份中的所有操作，并行运行，是容错的。通过消除单点故障，以冗余形式显示的硬件容错可以使任何组件或系统更加安全可靠。
• 由其他软件实例备份的软件系统。例如，如果连续复制客户数据库，则主数据库中的操作可以自动重定向到第二个数据库（如果第一个数据库关闭）。
• 如果备用电源可以在电源故障期间自动接管，则冗余电源有助于避免系统故障，确保不会丢失服务。

1.10持久对象（Persistent object）
【解释】
A persistent object is an object that has been assigned a storage location in a federated database. When you commit the transaction in which you create a persistent object, that object’s data is saved in the database; the object can then be accessed by other processes. A persistent object continues to exist beyond the duration of the process that creates it. In contrast, a transient object exists only within the memory of the process that creates it; when that process terminates, the transient object ceases to exist.

持久对象是已为联合数据库中的存储位置分配的对象。提交创建持久对象的事务时，该对象的数据将保存在数据库中;然后，其他进程可以访问该对象。持久对象在创建该对象的进程的持续时间之后将继续存在。相反，瞬态对象只存在于创建它的进程的内存中;当该进程终止时，瞬态对象将不复存在。
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【链接】
https://www.howtodothings.com/computers/a1285-persistent-objects.html
https://www.javatpoint.com/q/3243/what-is-the-meaning-of-persistent-object

【正文】
Types of Persistence
There are two types of persistence: object persistence and process persistence. In data terms, object persistence refers to an object that is not deleted until a need emerges to remove it from the memory. Some database models provide mechanisms for storing persistent data in the form of objects. In process persistence, processes are not killed or shut down by other processes and exist until the user kills them. For example, all of the core processes of a computer system are persistent for enabling the proper functioning of the system. Persistent processes are stored in non-volatile memory. They do not need special databases like persistent objects.
Object Persistence in Databases
A persistent database stores persistent data in the form of objects, or records that are durable when changing devices and software. Persistent data is stable and recoverable. Traditional relational database management systems (RDBMS) store persistent data in the form of records and tables. However, they cannot store objects and their relationships. Objects have necessary features (like encapsulation, inheritance, persistence, and polymorphism) that do not translate well into records and tables. Thus, certain special databases like object-oriented database management systems (OODBMS) and object relational database management systems (ORDBMS) are needed for storing objects and preserving object persistence.
Persistent Data: Importance
Persistent data is important for several reasons. For example:

1. Persistent data is static and does not change with time (not dynamic).
2. Persistent data stores core information. For example, an organization’s financial data must be persistent.
3. Persistent data cannot be deleted by external processes or objects until the user deletes it, meaning it’s stable.
4. Persistent data is time independent data. The data created by an application or object continues to exist even after the parent application or object has been deleted and remains accessible beyond object boundaries, other processes, or transactions.
5. Persistent data remains in its original format. If data resides in volatile memory, it’s deleted once the process is closed. However, persistent data stored in persistent databases, or non-volatile storage, continues to reside there even after closing the program.
6. Persistent data is non-volatile in nature and can withstand power outages.
7. Persistent data is recoverable data even after a system restarts or shuts down.
8. Persistent data changes cannot be lost and will always be available for access.
   【翻译】
   持久性的类型
   有两种类型的持久性：对象持久性和进程持久性。在数据术语中，对象持久性是指在需要从内存中删除对象之前不会删除的对象。某些数据库模型提供以对象形式存储持久数据的机制。在进程持久性中，进程不会被其他进程杀死或关闭，并且一直存在，直到用户杀死它们。例如，计算机系统的所有核心进程都持续用于实现系统的正常运行。持久进程存储在非易失性内存中。它们不需要像持久对象这样的特殊数据库。
   数据库中的对象持久性
   持久数据库以对象的形式存储持久数据，或更改设备和软件时持久的记录。持久数据是稳定和可恢复的。传统的关系数据库管理系统 （RDBMS） 以记录和表的形式存储持久数据。但是，它们不能存储对象及其关系。对象具有必要的功能（如封装、继承、持久性和多态性），这些功能不能很好地转换为记录和表。因此，存储对象和保留对象持久性需要某些特殊数据库，如面向对象的数据库管理系统 （OODBMS） 和对象关系数据库管理系统 （ORDBMS）。
   持久数据：重要性
   持久数据很重要，原因有好几。例如：
9. 持久数据是静态的，不会随着时间（不是动态）而变化。
10. 持久数据存储核心信息。例如，组织的财务数据必须是永久性的。
11. 在用户删除持久数据之前，外部进程或对象无法将其删除，这意味着它稳定。
12. 持久数据是时间无关的数据。即使父应用程序或对象已被删除并且仍然可访问到对象边界、其他进程或事务之外，应用程序或对象创建的数据仍将继续存在。
13. 持久数据保持其原始格式。如果数据驻留在易失性内存中，则一旦进程关闭，数据将被删除。但是，存储在持久数据库或非易失性存储中的持久数据即使在关闭程序后仍驻留在此。
14. 持久数据本质上是非易失性的，可以承受断电。
15. 即使在系统重新启动或关闭后，持久数据也是可恢复的数据。
16. 持久数据更改不能丢失，并且始终可供访问。
     
    2、第二次查词
    2.1序列图（Sequence diagram）

【解释】
UML Sequence Diagrams are interaction diagrams that detail how operations are carried out. They capture the interaction between objects in the context of a collaboration. Sequence Diagrams are time focus and they show the order of the interaction visually by using the vertical axis of the diagram to represent time what messages are sent and when.

	序列图是详细说明操作执行方式的交互图。它们捕获协作上下文中对象之间的交互。序列图是时间焦点，它们通过使用图的垂直轴来表示发送消息的时间和时间，直观地显示交互的顺序。
1

【链接】
https://www.visual-paradigm.com/guide/uml-unified-modeling-language/what-is-sequence-diagram/
https://www.smartdraw.com/sequence-diagram/
https://www.javatpoint.com/uml-sequence-diagram

【正文】
Purpose of Sequence Diagram
• Model high-level interaction between active objects in a system
• Model the interaction between object instances within a collaboration that realizes a use case
• Model the interaction between objects within a collaboration that realizes an operation
• Either model generic interactions (showing all possible paths through the interaction) or specific instances of a interaction (showing just one path through the interaction)
Sequence Diagrams at a Glance
Sequence Diagrams show elements as they interact over time and they are organized according to object (horizontally) and time (vertically):
Object Dimension
• The horizontal axis shows the elements that are involved in the interaction
• Conventionally, the objects involved in the operation are listed from left to right according to when they take part in the message sequence. However, the elements on the horizontal axis may appear in any order
Time Dimension
• The vertical axis represents time proceedings (or progressing) down the page.
Note that:
Time in a sequence diagram is all a about ordering, not duration. The vertical space in an interaction diagram is not relevant for the duration of the interaction.

【翻译】
序列图的用途
• 对系统中活动对象之间的高级交互建模
• 对实现用例的协作中对象实例之间的交互建模
• 建模实现操作的协作中对象之间的交互
• 模型泛型交互（通过交互显示所有可能的路径）或交互的特定实例（通过交互只显示一条路径）
序列图一览
序列图显示元素在一段时间的交互中，它们根据对象（水平）和时间（垂直）进行组织：
对象维度
• 水平轴显示交互中涉及的元素
通常，操作中涉及的对象根据它们何时参与消息序列从左到右列出。但是，水平轴上的元素可能会以任何顺序出现
时间维度
• 垂直轴表示页面下的时间程序（或进度）。
请注意：
序列图中的时间是所有关于排序，而不是持续时间。交互图中的垂直空间与交互持续时间不相关。

2.2 系统边界（System Boundary）

【解释】
A system boundary is a boundary that separates the internal components of a system from external entities. These entities can also be thought and be called as actors. In a use case diagram, a system boundary is represented by a rectangle that is drawn to enclosed the internal components of a system.

系统边界是将系统内部组件与外部实体分开的边界。这些实体也可以被思考并称为参与者。在用例图中，系统边界由矩形表示，该矩形绘制到系统的内部组件中。

【链接】
https://www.answers.com/Q/What_is_a_system_boundary

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/system-boundary

https://www.visual-paradigm.com/VPGallery/usecase/SystemBoundary.html

【正文】
The element properties of the system boundary element include the name, border style, and the number of horizontal or vertical lanes. You can also change the overall shape of system boundaries.
You can use the context menu of an element to mark a system boundary element as optional. If the element is not optional, you can click the other elements in the System Boundary space without activating or selecting the System Boundary itself.
Notes.
• The system boundary is the basis of the Image element, which allows you to add icons or backgrounds to the chart and automatically Display The Image Manager window, from which you can select the appropriate image
• System boundaries are different from the boundary elements used to capture user interaction, such as analysis diagrams

【翻译】
系统边界元素的元素属性包括名称，边框样式以及水平或垂直泳道的数量。您还可以更改系统边界的整体形状。
可以使用元素的上下文菜单将系统边界元素标记为“可选”。如果元素不可选，则可以单击“系统边界”空间中的其他元素，而不激活或选择“系统边界”本身。
笔记
• 系统边界是Image元素的基础，它允许您向图表添加图标或背景，自动显示图像管理器窗口，从中选择适当的图像
• 系统边界与用于捕获用户交互的边界元素不同，例如，分析图

2.3应用程序域（Application Domain）

【解释】
An application domain is the segment of reality for which a software system is developed. It is the background or starting point for the actual-state analysis and the creation of a domain model.
An application domain can be an organization, a department within an organization, or a single workplace.

应用程序域是开发软件系统的现实部分。它是实际状态分析和创建域模型的背景或起点。应用程序域可以是组织、组织内的部门或单个工作场所。
应用程序域的概念至少是一样宽，因此在分析域的实际状态时，可以很好地理解与模型构造相关的域概念和关系。另一方面，其程度应始终有限，即绝不过于复杂。

【链接】
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/5220/application-domain-net

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/application-domain

https://www.name.com/domains/app

【正文】
An application domain is a logical isolation boundary created around .NET applications so that applications do not access or affect each other.
Application domain has features similar to that of a process.Application domains have the following features:

1. Optimum utilization of system resources by using fewer processes to execute multiple applications.
2. Reliability by using isolation of tasks in situations where data cannot be shared and for unstable tasks that need to be unloaded without affecting the process.
3. Better efficiency by executing long-running processes that rarely use large extensions with optimal memory.
4. Application security by restricting the direct access to the code running in one application from the code or resources of another application.
5. Security control by specifying configuration details along for each application domain.

【翻译】
应用程序域是围绕NET应用程序创建的逻辑隔离边界，以便应用程序不会访问或相互影响。应用程序域具有类似于进程的功能。应用程序域具有以下功能：

1. 通过使用更少的进程来执行多个应用程序，优化系统资源的利用率。
2. 在无法共享数据的情况下对任务进行隔离，以及在不影响进程的情况下对需要卸载的不稳定任务使用隔离来可靠性。
3. 通过执行很少使用具有最佳内存的大型扩展的长时间运行的进程，提高效率。
4. 通过限制从另一个应用程序的代码或资源对在一个应用程序中运行的代码的直接访问来实现应用程序安全性。
5. 通过为每个应用程序域指定配置详细信息来进行安全控制。
   2.4变更控制板（Change control board）

【解释】
The main role of the change control board is to accept/reject change requests to the project.

变更控制委员会的主要作用是接受/拒绝对项目的变更请求。

【链接】
https://project-management-knowledge.com/definitions/c/change-control-board-ccb/

https://simplicable.com/new/change-control-board

https://study.com/academy/lesson/change-control-board-process-best-practices.html

【正文】
A change control board (CCB) is a group of individuals within the company that review and prioritize the change requests related to a project. This group can be as small as the project manager and the person who has sponsored the project, or as large as a committee of representatives who represent various functions within the organization. Some members can be directly impacted by the project, but it is not a requirement to be a member of the committee.
Members of Change Control Board
The strongest CCBs are small, which allow for quick decisions, but should at least be comprised of the following roles:
• Program or project management - responsible for monitoring the overall project
• Documentation - responsible for repository of information about project
• Testing - reviews final results of project before release
• Engineering or programming- responsible for creating deliverables
• Customer support- responsible for interacting with consumer
• Marketing- responsible for creating material consumers will see
An official CCB will have a scope of authority that indicates what changes the team has the ability to approve or deny before elevating to a higher authority. The authority should be defined based on budget limits and overall impact to the schedule. The CCB should have a chairperson who is assigned a scope of responsibility. This role should have the ability to break ties when voting on change requests and, in some cases, may have the ability to overrule the committee.
The CCB should meet routinely and place policies in place upfront, which identify key rules such as the number of people needed to pass a vote, how often the team will meet, the meeting setup, and how information from those meetings will be communicated to the company. The frequency of the meetings should be based on the size of the project. Each meeting should provide an open forum to review and discuss change requests. These requests can be compiled through a variety of sources like verbal communication, but often the most comprehensive option is a software system designed to capture all change requests.
Types of Change Requests
Project changes can typically be bundled into three types of groups:

1. Required - necessary to meet the goals of the project, often occur due to missed opportunities when planning
2. Scope changes - identified due to changes in the market, new information presented that was not available during planning, or new technology that will greatly improve the project results
3. Not required - not necessary and will not greatly improve the project results

【翻译】
变更控制委员会（CCB） 是公司内审核与项目相关的变更请求并确定其优先级的一组人员。这个小组可以像项目经理和赞助项目的人一样小，也可以像代表组织内各种职能的代表委员会一样大。有些成员可能会受到项目的直接影响，但这不是成为委员会成员的要求。
变更控制委员会成员
最强的 CB 很小，允许快速决策，但至少应该由以下角色组成：
• 计划或项目管理- 负责监控整个项目
• 文档- 负责有关项目的信息存储库
• 测试- 在发布前审核项目的最终结果
• 工程或编程- 负责创建可交付成果
• 客户支持- 负责与消费者互动
• 营销- 负责创造材料消费者将看到
官方 CCB 将具有权限范围，指示团队在提升至更高权限之前具有批准或拒绝的能力。当局应根据预算限制和对时间表的总体影响来定义。建行应该有一个负责范围的主席。这个角色应该有能力在就变更请求进行表决时断绝关系，在某些情况下，还有能力推翻委员会。
建行应定期开会，并提前制定相关政策，确定关键规则，如通过投票所需的人数、团队开会时间、会议设置以及这些会议的信息如何传达给公司。会议的频率应根据项目的规模。每次会议都应提供一个开放的论坛来审查和讨论变更请求。这些请求可以通过各种来源（如口头沟通）进行编译，但通常最全面的选项是旨在捕获所有更改请求的软件系统。
更改请求的类型
项目更改通常可以捆绑到三种类型的组中：

1. 必需- 实现项目目标所必需的，通常由于规划时错失机会而发生
2. 范围变化- 由于市场变化而确定，在规划期间提供的新信息，或将极大地改善项目结果的新技术
3. 不需要- 不需要，并且不会极大地改善项目结果
   2.5 容错性（Fault tolerance）

【解释】
The goal of fault tolerant computer systems is to ensure business continuity and high availability by preventing disruptions arising from a single point of failure. Fault tolerance solutions therefore tend to focus most on mission-critical applications or systems.
容错计算机系统的目标是通过防止单点故障导致的中断来确保业务连续性和高可用性。因此，容错解决方案往往主要侧重于关键任务应用程序或系统。

【链接】
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/3362/fault-tolerance

https://www.imperva.com/learn/availability/fault-tolerance/

https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/f/faulttol.htm

【正文】
Fault tolerant computing may include several levels of tolerance:
• At the lowest level, the ability to respond to a power failure, for example.
• A step up: during a system failure, the ability to use a backup system immediately.
• Enhanced fault tolerance: a disk fails, and mirrored disks take over for it immediately. This provides functionality despite partial system failure, or graceful degradation, rather than an immediate breakdown and loss of function.
• High level fault tolerant computing: multiple processors collaborate to scan data and output to detect errors, and then immediately correct them.
Fault tolerance software may be part of the OS interface, allowing the programmer to check critical data at specific points during a transaction.
Fault-tolerant systems ensure no break in service by using backup components that take the place of failed components automatically. These may include:
• Hardware systems with identical or equivalent backup operating systems. For example, a server with an identical fault tolerant server mirroring all operations in backup, running in parallel, is fault tolerant. By eliminating single points of failure, hardware fault tolerance in the form of redundancy can make any component or system far safer and more reliable.
• Software systems backed up by other instances of software. For example, if you replicate your customer database continuously, operations in the primary database can be automatically redirected to the second database if the first goes down.
• Redundant power sources can help avoid a system fault if alternative sources can take over automatically during power failures, ensuring no loss of service.

【翻译】
容错计算可能包括几个级别的容差：
• 例如，在最低级别，响应电源故障的能力。
• 一步：在系统故障期间，能够立即使用备份系统。
• 增强的容错：磁盘发生故障，镜像磁盘会立即接管它。这提供了功能，尽管部分系统故障，或正常降级，而不是立即崩溃和功能丢失。
• 高级容错计算：多个处理器协作扫描数据和输出以检测错误，然后立即更正错误。
容错软件可能是操作系统接口的一部分，允许程序员在事务期间检查特定点的关键数据。
容错系统通过使用自动代替故障组件的备份组件，确保不会中断服务。这些可能包括：
• 具有相同或等效备份操作系统的硬件系统。例如，具有相同容错服务器的服务器镜像备份中的所有操作，并行运行，是容错的。通过消除单点故障，以冗余形式显示的硬件容错可以使任何组件或系统更加安全可靠。
• 由其他软件实例备份的软件系统。例如，如果连续复制客户数据库，则主数据库中的操作可以自动重定向到第二个数据库（如果第一个数据库关闭）。
• 如果备用电源可以在电源故障期间自动接管，则冗余电源有助于避免系统故障，确保不会丢失服务。

2.6 异常处理（Exception handler）

【解释】
An exception handler is code that stipulates what a program will do when an anomalous event disrupts the normal flow of that program’s instructions. An exception, in a computer context, is an unplanned event that occurs while a program is executing and disrupts the flow of its instructions.

异常处理程序是规定程序在异常事件中断该程序指令的正常流时将执行哪些操作的代码。在计算机上下文中，异常是程序执行并中断其指令流时发生的计划外事件。

【链接】
https://www.theserverside.com/definition/exception-handler

https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/csharp/programming-guide/exceptions/

https://docs.spring.io/spring-framework/docs/current/javadoc-api/org/springframework/web/bind/annotation/ExceptionHandler.html

【正文】
In Java, there are two types of exceptions: Checked exceptions are those that are checked when the code is compiled; for the most part, the program should be able to recover from these, and exception handlers are written into programs to define what it should do according to specified conditions. Unchecked exceptions are less foreseen events that occur when a program runs. In some cases, these can be handled but usually they cannot. Errors are one type of unchecked exception.
Programs communicate with the operating system and other software systems through various layers. When a checked exception occurs, the method where it happened creates an exception object that contains information like what type of exception it was and the state of the program when it happened. The creation and subsequent passing of this object is called throwing an exception. The method passes the object to the runtime system, which searches on through the next layers seeking exception handler code that matches what is specified in the exception object. In that case, the exception handler is said to catch the exception. If an appropriate exception handler is not found, the operating system generates a fatal exception message, which means that the program must close and perhaps the system must shut down as well.

【翻译】
在Java中，有两种类型的异常：已检查的异常是在编译代码时检查的异常;在编译代码时检查的异常是检查的异常。在大多数情况下，程序应该能够从这些中恢复，并且异常处理程序被写入程序，以根据指定的条件定义应该执行哪些操作。未选中的异常是程序运行时所预见的事件较少。在某些情况下，这些可以处理，但通常不能。错误是一种未选中的异常。
程序通过各种层与操作系统和其他软件系统通信。发生选中的异常时，发生异常的方法将创建一个异常对象，其中包含一些信息，例如它是什么类型的异常以及程序发生时的状态。此对象的创建和后续传递称为引发异常。该方法将对象传递到运行时系统，运行时系统通过下一层进行搜索，以寻求与异常对象中指定的代码匹配的异常处理程序代码。在这种情况下，异常处理程序表示捕获异常。如果未找到相应的异常处理程序，操作系统将生成致命的异常消息，这意味着程序必须关闭，也许系统也必须关闭。

2.7需求引导（Requirment elicitation）

【解释】
A thorough discovery of business requirements is almost never readily available at an analyst’s fingertips—rarely can requirements be quickly looked up as one would gather information for a term paper or study for a test. Much of business or technical requirements is not documented anywhere—it resides in the minds of stakeholders, in feedback that has yet to be obtained from end users, and from a study of flowcharts and surveys that have yet to be created. And so requirements must be elicited, or drawn out, and the methodology in doing so must be logical and meticulous. The importance of elicitation cannot be overstated, for it is the linchpin to any requirements project. As one scholarly article notes: “Mistakes made in elicitation have been shown many times to be major causes of systems failure or abandonment and this has a very large cost either in the complete loss or the expense of fixing mistakes.” Adequate study and preparation for elicitation can go a long way to preventing these types of errors. The purpose of requirements elicitation, therefore, is to thoroughly identify the business needs, risks, and assumptions associated with any given project
彻底发现业务需求几乎从未在分析师的指尖上轻易获得， 很少可以快速查到需求，因为我们会为术语论文收集信息或为测试收集数据。许多业务或技术要求在任何地方都未记录在案，它存在于利益相关者的脑海里，存在于尚未从最终用户那里获得的反馈中，以及从流程图和尚未创建的调查中获得的反馈中。因此，必须引出或制定要求，这样做的方法必须合乎逻辑和细致。引出的重要性不能夸大，因为它是任何需求项目的主要方面。正如一篇学术文章所指出的那样："引出中的错误多次被证明是系统故障或放弃的主要原因，这在完全丢失或修复错误的费用上都会有非常大的代价。充分的研究和准备引出可以大有大的影响，以防止这些类型的错误。因此，需求引出的目的是彻底识别与任何给定项目相关的业务需求、风险和假设。
【链接】
https://requirements.com/Content/What-is/what-is-requirements-elicitation

https://www.apriorit.com/dev-blog/699-requirement-elicitation

http://www.anarsolutions.com/top-5-requirements-elicitation-techniques/

【正文】
Prepare for Requirements Elicitation

1. The first step in requirements elicitation is gleaning a comprehensive and accurate understanding of the project’s business need. During the elicitation process, an analyst’s strong understanding of the business need will help her guard against scope creep and gold plating, as well as select the proper stakeholders and elicitation techniques.
   An analyst’s next step in eliciting requirements is ensuring that an adequate amount and mix of stakeholders are secured for the project’s duration. For, as BABOK 2.0 (Business Analysis Body of Knowledge, the definitive guide to all things related to business analysis) notes, a good analyst must “actively engage stakeholders in defining requirements.” According to BABOK, a project’s stakeholders may include customers/end users, suppliers, the project manager, quality analysis, regulators, project sponsors, operational support, domain subject matter experts, and implementation subject matter experts. An analyst must recruit the participation of appropriate stakeholders based on the unique business needs of her project. After an analyst has identified and recruited her stakeholders, and chosen the method(s) by which she will elicit requirements (outlined below), it is advisable for her to schedule the time for conducting those methods with stakeholders as far in advance as possible to ensure adequate participation on their parts.
   Requirements Elicitation Techniques
   After securing the proper stakeholders, an analyst must determine the best techniques for eliciting requirements. Commonly used requirements elicitation methods (as identified by BABOK) include:
   • Brainstorming – The purpose of gathering your stakeholders for brainstorming is “to produce numerous new ideas, and to derive from them themes for further analysis [from BABOK].” An analyst should try to secure a representative from each participating stakeholder group in the brainstorming session. If an analyst serves as facilitator of a brainstorming session, she must ensure that while participants feel free to propose new ideas and solutions, they remain focused on the business need at hand and do not engage in scope creep, gold plating, or become distracted with other business issues. All ideas must be recorded so that they are not lost. According to BABOK, the brainstorming method is particularly useful if your project has no clear winning choice for a solution, or if existing proposed solutions are deemed inadequate. The brainstorming process and the resulting follow-up analysis will help ensure that the best possible solution is reached for any business objective.
   • Document analysis – Document analysis involves gathering and reviewing all existing documentation that is pertinent to your business objective or that may hold data related to a relevant solution. According to BABOK, such documentation may include, “business plans, market studies, contracts, requests for proposal, statements of work, memos, existing guidelines, procedures, training guides, competing product literature, published comparative product reviews, problem reports, customer suggestion logs, and existing system specifications, among others.” In other words, virtually anything that is written related to the project may be useful. This type of elicitation is especially useful when the goal is to update an existing system or when the understanding of an existing system will enhance a new system. However, document analysis alone is rarely enough to thoroughly extract all of the requirements for any given project.
   • Focus Group – Focus groups consist of a mix of pre-qualified stakeholders who gather to offer input on the business need at hand and its potential solutions. Focus groups are particularly helpful when key stakeholders are not particularly imaginative or forthcoming; a few more vocal stakeholders may help them think through and articulate solutions. Focus groups are also a good way for time-pressed analysts to get a lot of information at once. They may be conducted in person or virtually. (Key project sponsors or business owners should still be interviewed individually for thorough discovery.)
   • Interface Analysis – An interface analysis carefully analyzes and deconstructs the way that a user interacts with an application, or the way one application interacts with another. According to BABOK, a thorough interface analysis will describe the purpose of each interface involved and elicit high-level details about it, including outlining its content. This type of elicitation is essential for software solutions, which almost always involve applications interacting with one another and/or users interacting with applications. But, according to BABOK, interface analysis can also be useful for non-software solutions (such as defining deliverables by third parties).
   • Interviews – One-on-one interviews are among the most popular types of requirements elicitation, and for good reason: they give an analyst the opportunity to discuss in-depth a stakeholder’s thoughts and get his or her perspective on the business need and the feasibility of potential solutions. “Research has found that interviews . . . are the most effective way of eliciting requirements.” Whether an analyst chooses to have a structured (with predefined questions) or unstructured interview (with free-flowing, back-and-forth conversation), she must fully understand the business need in order to conduct a successful interview. It is a good practice for an analyst to share her interview notes with the interviewee afterward to ensure there were no misunderstandings and to jog the interviewee’s thoughts for any further insights.
   • Observation (job shadowing) – Observation is quite helpful when considering a project that will change or enhance current processes. According to BABOK, two basic types of observation are available to an analyst: (1) passive observation, where the analyst merely watches someone working but does not interrupt or engage the worker in any way, and (2) active observation, where an analyst asks questions throughout the process to be sure she understands and even attempts portions of the work. The nature of an analyst’s project will dictate the level of detail an observation should encompass. As with interviews, it is a good practice for an analyst to provide notes from her observations and/or a verbal description of her understanding of the work for the worker to review in order to be sure that there were no misunderstandings of the process.
   • Prototyping (storyboarding, navigation flow, paper prototyping, screen flows) – Prototyping is especially valuable for stakeholders such as business owners and end users who may not understand all of the technical aspects of requirements, but will better relate to a visual representation of the end product. To quote BABOK, “Stakeholders often find prototyping to be a concrete means of identifying, describing and validating their interface needs.” The prototyping process is normally iterative, improving as more input and evaluation are gleaned from stakeholders. Prototyping may be an interactive screen (normally consisting of hypertext only with no real data behind it), a mock-up (such as a PowerPoint), a navigation flow (such as a Visio diagram), or a storyboard. Simple, throwaway prototypes (such as pencil sketches) may be done in the initial stages of discovery, and more detailed, interactive prototypes may be done once business requirements have been identified. At the latter, more detailed prototype stage,prototype features must fulfill previously identified business needs as outlined in the requirements.
   • Requirements workshops – A requirements workshop involves gathering a previously identified stakeholders in a structured setting for a defined amount of time in order to elicit, refine, and/or edit requirements. To be successful, requirements workshops must include a recorder (or scribe) to record participants’ input, and a facilitator to direct the discussion. Because participants’ may also brainstorm together and listen to each others’ input, they can provide immediate feedback and refinements to identified business needs, which can ensure a fast, effective elicitation of requirements.
   • Survey/questionnaire – While they preclude the opportunity for in-person, ad hoc conversations, surveys are useful for quickly gathering data from a large group of participants. Because free online survey software is readily available, surveys are an inexpensive way to gather objective input from customers or potential end users. As with selecting stakeholders, a successful survey or questionnaire must have well-chosen participants. As one researcher notes, questionnaires “can be useful when the population is large enough, and the issues addressed are clear enough to all concerned.” Surveys can be structured to offer a series of finite choices for feedback, or they can offer open-ended input, depending on the needs of the project at hand. Open-ended surveys are useful for a broader discovery of business needs; however, the larger the number of participants in open-ended surveys, the more prohibitive they are to analyze. Survey wording must be unambiguous and precise. It is good practice for an analyst to politely request that survey participants respond by a reasonable deadline and that they keep any proprietary business information contained within the survey confidential.
   Conduct Requirements Elicitation
   An analyst’s project’s business needs and the stakeholder mix will determine which of the above elicitation method(s) are best. Elicitation does not normally occur solely prior to requirements however; it occurs throughout a project—during discovery, modeling, and even testing. Whenever elicitation takes place during a project’s life cycle, the same principles apply to make it successful—the correct mix of stakeholders, a thorough understanding of the business need, properly selected elicitation techniques, and meticulous attention to detail.

Confirm Requirements Elicitation Results
Once the elicitation methods have been employed, an analyst must document the elicitation quickly, while it is still fresh in her mind, and share the results with appropriate stakeholders to confirm their agreement with the findings. This stage is essential to ensure that the analyst has accurately grasped, and stakeholders have accurately communicated, the project’s needs.

【翻译】
准备需求引文

1. 需求引出的第一步是全面准确地了解项目的业务需求。在引出过程中，分析师对业务需求的强烈理解将有助于她防范范围蠕变和镀金，以及选择适当的利益相关者和引出技术。
2. 分析师在征求需求方面的下一步是确保项目期间获得足够数量和利益相关者的组合。因为，正如BABOK 2.0（知识业务分析机构，与业务分析有关的所有事项的明确指南）所指出的，一个好的分析师必须"积极让利益相关者参与定义需求"。根据 BABOK 的说法，项目的利益相关者可能包括客户/最终用户、供应商、项目经理、质量分析、监管机构、项目发起人、运营支持、领域主题专家和实施主题专家。分析师必须根据项目的独特业务需求招募适当的利益相关者的参与。在分析员确定并招募了她的利益相关者，并选择了她提出要求的方法（见下文概述）之后，她最好尽可能提前安排时间与利益相关者一起执行这些方法，以确保他们充分参与。
   需求引出技术
   在确保适当的利益相关者之后，分析师必须确定获取需求的最佳技术。常用要求引出方法（由 BABOK 标识）包括：
   • 集思广益 – 召集利益相关者进行头脑风暴的目的是"产生许多新想法，并从中衍生出主题，以便[从 BABOK]进一步分析。分析师应尝试在头脑风暴会议中从每个参与的利益相关者小组中争取一名代表。如果分析师担任头脑风暴会议的促进者，她必须确保，当参与者能够随意提出新的想法和解决方案时，他们仍然专注于手头的业务需求，并且不会参与范围蠕变、镀金或因其他业务问题而分心。所有的想法都必须被记录下来，这样它们就不会丢失。BABOK 认为，如果您的项目没有明确的制胜选择，或者现有建议的解决方案被认为不够充分，则集思广益的方法尤其有用。集思广益流程和由此产生的后续分析将有助于确保为任何业务目标达成尽可能最佳的解决方案。
   • 文档分析 – 文档分析涉及收集和审查与您的业务目标相关或可能保存与相关解决方案相关的数据的所有现有文档。根据 BABOK 的说法，此类文档可能包括"业务计划、市场研究、合同、建议书、工作说明、备忘录、现有指南、程序、培训指南、竞争产品文献、已发布的比较产品评论、问题报告、客户建议日志和现有系统规范等。换句话说，几乎任何与项目相关的写入内容都可能很有用。当目标是更新现有系统或对现有系统的理解将增强新系统时，这种类型的引出特别有用。但是，仅单是文档分析很少足以彻底提取任何给定项目的所有要求。
   • 焦点小组 – 焦点小组由一批预先合格的利益相关者组成，他们聚集在一起，就当前的业务需求及其潜在解决方案提供意见。当主要利益攸关方不是特别富有想象力或即将出现时，重点小组尤其有用;一些更响亮的利益相关者可以帮助他们思考和阐明解决方案。焦点小组也是时间紧迫分析师同时获取大量信息的好办法。它们可以亲自进行，也可以进行。（关键项目发起人或企业主仍应单独面谈，以进行彻底发现。
   • 接口分析 - 界面分析仔细分析并解构用户与应用程序的交互方式，或一个应用程序与另一个应用程序的交互方式。根据BABOK的说法，一个彻底的界面分析将描述每个接口的目的，并找出有关它的高细节，包括概述其内容。这种类型的引出对于软件解决方案至关重要，它几乎总是涉及应用程序相互交互和/或用户与应用程序交互。但是，根据 BABOK 的说法，接口分析对于非软件解决方案（例如定义第三方的可交付成果）也很有用。
   • 访谈 – 一对一访谈是最常见的需求引出类型之一，有充分的理由：它们让分析师有机会深入讨论利益相关者的想法，并了解其对业务需求和潜在解决方案可行性的看法。"研究发现，采访…是激发需求最有效的方法。无论分析师选择进行结构化（有预定义的问题）还是非结构化面试（进行自由流动、反复交谈），她都必须充分了解业务需求，才能成功进行面试。对于分析师来说，事后与受访者分享她的面试记录是一个很好的做法，以确保没有误解，并慢跑被采访者的想法，以获得任何进一步见解。
   • 观察（工作阴影） – 观察在考虑将更改或增强当前流程的项目时非常有用。据BABOK说，分析师可以进行两种基本观察：（1） 被动观察，即分析师只观察某人工作，而不会以任何方式打断或吸引工作人员;（2） 主动观察，即分析师在整个过程中提出问题，以确保她理解甚至尝试部分工作。分析师项目的性质将决定观察应包含的细节级别。与访谈一样，分析员应提供她观察和（或）口头描述她对工作的理解，以便工人进行审查，以确保对过程没有误解。
   • 原型设计（故事板、导航流、纸张原型设计、屏幕流）– 原型设计对于利益相关者（如企业所有者和最终用户）尤其有价值，他们可能不了解需求的所有技术方面，但会更好地与最终产品的可视化表示相关。引用 BABOK，"利益相关者通常认为原型设计是识别、描述和验证其接口需求的具体方法。原型设计过程通常是迭代的，随着利益相关者收集更多的投入和评估，改进。原型设计可能是交互式屏幕（通常仅包含超文本，背后没有真实数据）、模型（如 PowerPoint）、导航流（如 Visio 关系图）或情节提要。简单、一次性的原型（如铅笔草图）可能在发现的初始阶段完成，一旦确定了业务需求，可以完成更详细的交互式原型。在后者，更详细的原型阶段，原型功能必须满足需求中列出的先前确定的业务需求。
   • 需求研讨会 – 需求研讨会涉及在结构化环境中收集以前确定的利益相关者，时间规定的时间，以便引出、细化和/或编辑需求。要取得成功，需求研讨会必须包括记录员（或抄写员）记录参与者的意见，以及指导讨论的主持人。由于参与者还可以集思广益并听取彼此的意见，因此他们可以立即提供反馈和完善，以满足已识别的业务需求，从而确保快速、有效地提出需求。
   • 调查/问卷 – 虽然调查排除了进行亲自进行临时对话的机会，但调查对于快速收集大量参与者的数据非常有用。由于免费的在线调查软件是现成的，因此调查是收集客户或潜在最终用户客观意见的廉价方法。与选择利益相关者一样，成功的调查或问卷必须有精心挑选的参与者。正如一位研究人员指出的，问卷"在人口足够大时非常有用，而且所处理的问题对于所有相关者来说已经足够清楚了。调查可以结构化为提供一系列有限的反馈选择，也可以提供开放式输入，具体取决于当前项目的需求。开放式调查有助于更广泛地发现业务需求;然而，参加不限成员名额调查的人越大，他们分析的就越令人望而却步。调查措辞必须明确和准确。分析师礼貌地要求调查参与者在合理期限前作出答复，并且对调查中包含的任何专有业务信息保密，这是一种好的做法。
   行为要求引发
   分析师的项目业务需求和利益相关者组合将决定上述引出方法中哪种方法最好。然而，通常不仅仅在要求之前进行引出;它发生在整个项目 - 在发现、建模甚至测试期间。无论何时在项目的生命周期内进行引出，都适用相同的原则，使其成功 — 利益相关者的正确组合、对业务需求的透彻理解、正确选择的引出技术以及对细节的细致关注。

确认需求结果
一旦采用引出方法，分析员必须快速记录引出，而她头脑中仍然记忆犹新，并与适当的利益相关者分享结果，以确认他们对结果的一致。此阶段对于确保分析师准确掌握且利益相关者准确传达项目需求至关重要。
引物是需求创造阶段的基础研究。一旦分析师有足够的材料，她就可以开始制定需求。

2.8采样观察(Sampling observation)
【解释】
Event sampling observation is a method of doing observational studies used in psychological research. In an event sampling observation, the researcher records an event every time it happens. The researcher records the antecedent, or the actions immediately prior to the event; the behavior, which is a summary of the observed behavior; and the consequences, or what happens immediately after the event.

事件抽样观察是一种在心理学研究中进行观察研究的方法。在事件采样观察中，研究人员每次发生事件时都会记录事件。研究者记录事件前的或操作;行为，这是观察到的行为的总结;和后果，或事件发生后立即发生的事情。

【链接】
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/sampling.asp

https://www.reference.com/world-view/event-sampling-observation-c4a50bddd1f709fd

https://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/gerstman/StatPrimer/measure

【正文】
Event sampling gives the observer a very efficient way to collect data on a targeted behavior because it concentrates only on the behavior. Over time, these samples of behaviors serve to represent the child’s behavior in this one particular area of development. In event sampling, the observer records every example of the focus behavior as it naturally occurs during a specified time period. For instance, if the observer wishes to learn about a child’s’ gross motor skills, he or she should plan to observe during outdoor time or another time when children have access to large space in which to use their large muscles. Over several observations the observer can obtain a representative sample.

【翻译】
事件采样为观察者提供了一种非常有效的方法来收集有关目标行为的数据，因为它只关注该行为。随着时间的推移，这些行为样本有助于代表孩子在这个特定发展领域的行为。在事件采样中，观察者记录焦点行为的每个示例，因为它在指定时间段内自然发生。例如，如果观察者希望了解孩子的运动技能，他或她应该计划在户外时间或另一个时间观察儿童能够进入大空间使用其大肌肉的时间。在多个观测值上，观察者可以获得一个具有代表性的样本。

2.9 指导委员会（Steering committee）

【解释】
A steering committee is an advisory body that’s part of IT—or other—governance. Members include experts, authority figures, and senior stakeholders in a project or organization. As a result, they have a significant stake in how each project is managed. Thus, key concerns for steering committees are the direction, scope, budget, timeliness, and methods used. Steering committees generally meet periodically to discuss each of these aspects and help set, or reset, direction.

指导委员会是 IT 或其他治理的一部分的咨询机构。成员包括项目或组织中的专家、权威人物和高级利益相关者。因此，他们对每个项目的管理方式都非常重要。因此，指导委员会的主要关切是方向、范围、预算、及时性以及使用的方法。指导委员会通常定期开会讨论每个方面，并帮助确定或重置方向。

【链接】
https://status.net/articles/steering-committee/

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/steering%20committee

https://study.com/academy/lesson/steering-committee-definition-purpose-examples.html

【正文】
A steering committee is an advisory group that makes directional decisions on various organizational projects. Its members directly support project managers working toward strategic company directions.
In practice steering committees also do the following:
• Act as an advocate for initiatives and projects across the wider organization
• Set the strategic direction of projects
• Provide advice or direct input on budgeting, including assets (such as people), money, facilities, time, hiring, and marketing
• Establish project goals and scope as well as determine how success will be measured
• Assess and approve or reject project plans and changes to project plans
• Select project managers and experts to support projects
• Prioritize and reprioritize project deliverables
• Monitor project processes and plans
• Resolve conflicts between parties
• Come up with ideas for strategy and problem solving
• Provide expert input on concerns and issues related to projects or the overall business
• Develop policies and governance procedures
• Identify, monitor, and eliminate project and business risks
• Monitor project quality and adjust accordingly
How a Steering Committee Increases Value
Considering the range of functions steering committees provide, it might seem quite clear that they can increase business and project value. When working well, steering committees increase value by keeping projects on track, budgets in check, risks mitigated, and conflicts resolved. The fact that all of this happens apart from daily operations means the value gain is accentuated.
However, there’s a fine line between successful governance practices that increases value and bureaucratic governance practices that waste time and lead to poor decisions. Assuming a steering committee has followed the guidelines of having a chairperson, diverse members, and openness with clear goals, it’s a matter of what goes in that determines what comes out. Therefore, data is arguably the biggest contributor to value gain.
Making the Right Decisions With the Right Data
To gain the most value from a steering committee, it’s vital that the data is meaningful and understandable. Bad or incomprehensible data can jeopardize the ability of the steering committee to make informed and timely decisions. Usable data, on the other hand, facilitates clear communication and correctly represents the current state of events.

【翻译】
指导委员会是一个咨询小组，负责对各种组织项目做出方向性决策。其成员直接支持项目经理朝着公司战略方向努力。
在实践中，指导委员会还做以下工作：
• 在整个组织中倡导各种倡议和项目
• 设定项目的战略方向
• 就预算编制提供建议或直接投入，包括资产（如人员）、资金、设施、时间、招聘和营销
• 确定项目目标和范围，并确定如何衡量成功
• 评估和批准或拒绝项目计划和项目计划变更
• 选择项目经理和专家支持项目
• 确定项目可交付成果的优先级并重新确定优先级
• 监控项目流程和计划
• 解决各方之间的冲突
• 提出策略和解决问题的想法
• 就与项目或整体业务相关的问题和问题提供专家意见
• 制定政策和治理程序
• 识别、监控和消除项目和业务风险
• 监控项目质量并相应地进行调整
指导委员会如何增加价值
考虑到指导委员会提供的职能范围，似乎很清楚，它们可以增加业务和项目价值。如果工作良好，指导委员会通过使项目保持正轨、预算得到控制、风险降低和冲突得到解决来增加价值。除了日常操作之外，所有这一切都意味着价值增益得到强调。
然而，成功的治理实践与官僚治理实践之间有一条细线，这些治理实践会浪费时间并导致糟糕的决策。假设指导委员会遵循了主席、多元化成员和明确目标的开放性准则，那么决定是什么决定着是什么。因此，数据可以说是价值收益的最大贡献者。
使用正确的数据做出正确的决策
为了从指导委员会获得最大的价值，数据是有意义和易于理解的， 这一点至关重要。不良或难以理解的数据可能危及指导委员会作出知情和及时决策的能力。另一方面，可用数据便于清晰通信，并正确表示事件的当前状态。

2.10用例图(Use case diagream)

【解释】
A UML use case diagram is the primary form of system/software requirements for a new software program underdeveloped. Use cases specify the expected behavior (what), and not the exact method of making it happen (how). Use cases once specified can be denoted both textual and visual representation (i.e. use case diagram). A key concept of use case modeling is that it helps us design a system from the end user’s perspective. It is an effective technique for communicating system behavior in the user’s terms by specifying all externally visible system behavior.

用例图是新软件程序不发达的系统/软件要求的主要形式。用例指定预期行为（什么），而不是实现它的确切方法（如何）。一旦指定了用例，可以同时表示文本和可视表示形式（即用例图）。用例建模的一个关键概念是，它帮助我们从最终用户的角度设计系统。它是一种有效的技术，通过指定所有外部可见的系统行为，在用户的术语中传达系统行为。

【链接】
https://www.visual-paradigm.com/guide/uml-unified-modeling-language/what-is-use-case-diagram/

https://www.lucidchart.com/pages/uml-use-case-diagram

https://www.guru99.com/use-case-diagrams-example.html

【正文】
Use case diagrams are typically developed in the early stage of development and people often apply use case modeling for the following purposes:
• Specify the context of a system
• Capture the requirements of a system
• Validate a systems architecture
• Drive implementation and generate test cases
• Developed by analysts together with domain experts

【翻译】
用例图通常在开发的早期阶段开发，人们通常应用用例建模用于以下目的：
• 指定系统的上下文
• 捕获系统的需求
• 验证系统体系结构
• 驱动实现并生成测试用例
• 由分析师与领域专家共同开发

2.11原生数据类型（Primitive date type）
【解释】
Primitive data types: The primitive data types include boolean, char, byte, short, int, long, float and double.
原生始数据类型：基元数据类型包括布尔、字符、字节、短、int、长、浮点和双精度。

【链接】
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/29494/primitive-data-type

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Java_Programming/Primitive_Types

https://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/nutsandbolts/datatypes.html

【正文】
Primitive Data Type,
• A primitive data type is one that fits the base architecture of the underlying computer such as int, float, and pointer, and all of the variations, thereof such as char short long unsigned float double and etc, are a primitive data type.
• Primitive data are only single values, they have not special capabilities.
• The examples of Primitive data types are given byte, short, int, long, float, double, char etc.
• The integer reals, logic data character data pointer, and reference are primitive data structures data structure that normally is directly operated upon by machine-level instructions are known as the primitive structure and data type.

【翻译】
原始数据类型，
• 基元数据类型是适合基础计算机（如 int、float 和指针）的基本体系结构的数据类型，所有变体（如字符短长无符号浮点双等）都是基元数据类型。
• 原始数据只是单个值，它们没有特殊功能。
• 原始数据类型的示例包括字节、短、int、长、浮、双、字符等。
• 整数实数、逻辑数据字符数据指针和引用是原始数据结构数据结构，通常由机器级指令直接操作，称为基元结构和数据类型。

2.12形式参数（Formal paramenter）

【解释】
An object or reference declared as part of a function declaration or definition, or in the catch clause of an exception handler, that acquires a value on entry to the function or handler; an identifier from the comma-separated list bounded by the parentheses immediately following the macro name in a function-like macro definition; or a template-parameter. Parameters are also known as formal arguments or formal parameters.

声明为函数声明或定义的一部分，或在异常处理程序的 catch 子句中声明的对象或引用，在进入函数或处理程序时获取值;逗号分隔列表中的标识符，该列表由括号所限制，该括号在类似函数的宏定义中跟随宏名称;或模板参数。参数也称为正式参数或形式参数。

【链接】
https://stackoverflow.com/questions/18870156/what-is-a-formal-parameter

https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-formal-parameter-in-C

【正文】
Formal parameters are the variables defined by the function that receives values when the function is called. According to the above program, the values 2 and 3 are passed to the function addition. In the addition function, there are two variables called x and y. The value 2 is copied into variable x, and value 3 is copied into variable y. The variable x and y are not the actual parameters. They are copies of the actual parameters. They are known as formal parameters. These variables are only accessible within the method. After printing the addition of two numbers, the control is returned back to the main program.

【翻译】
形式参数是由调用函数时接收值的函数定义的变量。根据上述程序，值 2 和 3 传递给函数加法。在添加函数中，有两个变量称为 x 和 y。值 2 复制到变量 x 中，值 3 复制到变量 y 中。变量 x 和 y 不是实际参数。它们是实际参数的副本。它们称为形式参数。这些变量只能在方法内访问。打印添加两个数字后，控件将返回到主程序。

2.13可泛化元素（Generalizable element）

【解释】
A generalization is a binary taxonomic (i.e. related to classification) directed relationship between a more general classifier (superclass) and a more specific classifier (subclass).

泛化是更通用的分类器（超类）和更具体的分类器（子类）之间的二元分类（即与分类相关）定向关系。

【链接】
https://www.uml-diagrams.org/generalization.html

https://sparxsystems.com/enterprise_architect_user_guide/14.0/modeling_tools/setelementparent.html

【正文】
Each generalization set has two propertier-is Covering(complete or incompele constrain id Disjoint(disjoint or overlapping constraint),to clarify what kind of set it is.
The is Covering property of generalization set specifies whether the set of specific classifiers in that generalization set is complete. For the covering ({complete}) generalization set, every instance of the general classifier is also an instance of (at least) one of the specific classifiers. If the set is not covering ({incomplete}), there could be some instances of the general classifier that could not be classified as any of the specific classifiers from the generalization set.
The is Disjoint property specifies whether the specific classifiers of the generalization set may overlap. Generalization set constrained as {disjoint} has no instance of any specific classifier may also be an instance of another specific classifier (i.e there is no overlapping of classifiers). If generalization set is {overlapping}, some or all of its specific classifiers could share common instances.
By default, in UML 2.0 to UML 2.4.1 generalization set is {incomplete, disjoint}, while in UML 2.5 default was changed to {incomplete, overlapping}.
A generalization set may optionally be associated with a classifier called its power type. The power type instances in this case may be treated as semantically equivalent to each of the corresponding specializing classifiers in every generalization in the generalization set. UML specification does not mandate how this semantic equivalence is implemented and how its integrity is maintained.
On the diagram, the generalization set constraints are placed next to the sets, close to the common arrowhead of the generalization set or near the dashed line for the generalization set.

【翻译】
每个泛化集有两个属性- 是覆盖（完整或不完整的约束）和是"不相交"（不相交或重叠约束），以澄清它是集的种类。
泛化集的属性指定该泛化集中的特定分类器集是否完整。对于覆盖（[完整]泛化集，通用分类器的每个实例也是（至少）一个特定分类器的实例。如果该集未覆盖（[不完整]），则可能存在一般分类器的一些实例，这些实例无法归类为泛化集中的任何特定分类器。
属性指定泛化集的特定分类器是否可以重叠。泛化集约束为[不相交]没有任何特定分类器的实例，也可以是另一个特定分类器的实例（即没有分类器的重叠）。如果泛化集是 [重叠]，则其某些或所有特定分类器可以共享公共实例。
默认情况下，在UML 2.0 到 UML 2.4.1泛化集中，泛化集是 [不完整、不相交]，而在 UML 2.5中，默认值更改为[不完整、重叠]。
泛化集可以选择与称为其电源类型的分类器关联。在这种情况下，电源类型实例在语义上可以被视为与泛化集中的每个泛化中每个相应的专用分类器的语义等效。UML 规范不要求如何实现这种语义等价，以及如何维护其完整性。
在关系图上，泛化集约束放置在集旁边，靠近泛化集的通用箭头或泛化集的虚线附近。

2.14包函层次（Containment hierarchy）

【解释】
Packages are one example of a container. The model elements contained within a package are called packageable elements, examples of which are blocks, use cases, and activities. Since packages are also packageable elements, they can support package hierarchies. A model is a special kind of package that contains a set of model elements describing a domain of interest.

包是容器的一个示例。包中包含的模型元素称为可打包元素，例如块、用例和活动。由于包也是可打包的元素，因此它们可以支持包层次结构。模型是一种特殊的包，其中包含描述感兴趣域的一组模型元素。

【链接】
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/containment-hierarchy

http://www.firstobject.com/dn_markhierarchy.htm

https://relatedwords.io/containment-hierarchy

【正文】
In addition to having a place in a containment hierarchy, each model element with a name—called a named element—must also be a member of a namespace. A namespace enables its members to be uniquely identified within it by name. A package is a namespace for the packageable elements it contains. A packageable element has a fully qualified name to unambiguously locate it in the package hierarchy of a model.
An import relationship allows elements contained in one package to be imported into another package so that they can be referenced simply by their names within that package. SysML also contains a relationship between named elements called a dependency, which can be specialized as needed to reflect more specific semantics.

【翻译】
除了在包含层次结构中具有位置外，具有名称的每个模型元素（称为命名元素）也必须是命名空间的成员。命名空间允许其成员在名称中唯一标识。包是它包含的可打包元素的名称空间。可打包元素具有完全限定的名称，可明确在模型的包层次结构中定位它。
导入关系允许将一个包中包含的元素导入到另一个包中，以便只需由包中的名称引用它们。SysML 还包含称为依赖项的命名元素之间的关系，该关系可以根据需要进行专门化，以反映更具体的语义。
在我的用例建模中，我只在以下几种情况下使用 [包括] 关系：
1.
为大型系统创建用例抽象/包含层次结构10（系统复杂性管理）
2.
将大型复杂用例分解为更小、更接近的用例（用例复杂性管理）
3.
提取可由不同用例重用的较小功能（重用）
4.
将系统级用例的一部分分配给子系统（分配）。

2.15性能目标（Performance goal）

【解释】
Performance goals are short-term objectives set for specific duties or tasks in your current job position. These goals are usually related to the overall company goals or specific department goals where you work. They help you know what is expected of you in your position. To be effective, it is important that they are clearly defined and easy to measure.
性能目标是为当前工作职位的特定职责或任务设定的短期目标。这些目标通常与您工作的总体公司目标或特定部门目标相关。他们帮助你了解在你的职位上对你的期望。为了有效，必须明确定义和易于衡量。
【链接】
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-are-performance-goals-definition-examples-quiz.html

https://www.upcounsel.com/performance-goals

https://www.peoplegoal.com/blog/top-10-employee-performance-goal-examples-for-2020

【正文】
Performance goals give an incentive to employees to do their best work while pointing them in the direction that the employer wants them to be in. Writing a performance goal is difficult for some people. Since these goals are short, finding the right words is crucial.
Understanding what goes into employment performance goals helps determine what goals should be set and how they are written.
Motivation
Everyone has different motivations. Before writing goals for an employee, consider what motivates them. In order to streamline performance monitoring and keep track of an employee’s progress, some organizations use employment management systems. These systems typically contain:
• Strengths
• Weaknesses
• Professional goals
Identifying and tracking these aspects is important because it helps an employer determine whether an employee is ready for additional duties in their current job. Employers also use insights gained through the system to consider people for promotions. A management system is a valuable tool that shows, through data, which employees are ready to take on different roles.
Productivity
Productivity is another important component of performance goal creation. In a management system, evaluations and appraisals are examined to determine productivity and look for ways that it can be improved. During the examination process, obstacles that keep the employee from achieving a higher level of productivity come to light. By finding out how productivity is interrupted, the employer uses the insights gained to assess the overall processes and procedures in the company that helps employees get their jobs done.
If productivity is lacking, certain policies and procedures may need revising. Appropriate training and development techniques can help to remove barriers to improved performance.
Accountability
Accountability is essential when it comes to creating performance goals. Some employers and managers use performance evaluations as a method of determining whether an employee is actually doing the job for which they were hired.
Other tactics include observation and guidance to assess accountability. Employers and managers study quality, efficiency, and production to discern if the job is being done.
Performance has a correlation to accountability too. If an employee does not show accountability, then it is not likely that the employee is motivated, productive, or wants work in the future.
Job Satisfaction
The majority of employers have a goal of creating an environment for work that encourages collaboration and synergy because it increases the likelihood of satisfaction among employees and they will want to stay with the company.
By including a job satisfaction component in an evaluation, employers are able to use the results to determine how successful an employee is in other aspects of their jobs.
Employees who are happy with work assignments and receive support from supervisors and managers are productive, engaged, and likely accountable for their jobs as well. Feeling satisfied with their work increases whenever the employee is recognized.

【翻译】
绩效目标激励员工尽最大努力，同时将员工指向雇主希望他们前进的方向。对有些人来说，写一个绩效目标是很困难的。由于这些目标很短，找到正确的词语至关重要。
了解就业绩效目标有助于确定应该设定哪些目标以及如何制定这些目标。
动机
每个人都有不同的动机。在为员工写目标之前，请考虑激励他们什么。为了简化绩效监控并跟踪员工的进度，一些组织使用雇佣管理系统。这些系统通常包含：
• 优势
• 弱点
• 专业目标
识别和跟踪这些方面非常重要，因为它可帮助雇主确定员工是否已准备好承担当前工作的其他职责。雇主还利用通过该系统获得的见解来考虑晋升人员。管理系统是一个有价值的工具，它通过数据显示哪些员工已准备好承担不同的角色。
生产力
生产力是绩效目标创建的另一个重要组成部分。在管理系统中，对评估和评估进行审查，以确定生产率，并寻找改进方法。在考试过程中，阻碍员工实现更高生产率的障碍应被揭示出来。通过了解工作效率是如何中断的，雇主利用获得的见解来评估公司中有助于员工完成工作的总体流程和程序。
如果缺乏生产力，某些政策和程序可能需要修订。适当的培训和开发技术有助于消除提高绩效的障碍。
问 责
在创建绩效目标时，问责制至关重要。一些雇主和经理使用绩效评估作为确定员工是否实际在做所雇用的工作的方法。
其他策略包括观察和指导，以评估问责制。雇主和管理者研究质量、效率和生产，以辨别工作是否正在完成。
绩效与问责制也有关联。如果员工没有表现出责任心，那么员工不太可能有动力、有生产力或将来想要工作。
工作满意度
大多数雇主的目标是创造一个鼓励协作和协作的工作环境，因为这会增加员工满意的可能性，并且他们希望留在公司。
通过将工作满意度部分包括在评估中，雇主能够利用结果来确定员工在工作其他方面的成功程度。
对工作分配满意并获得主管和经理支持的员工具有高效、敬业性，并可能对他们的工作负责。每当员工得到认可时，对工作感到满意都会增加。
雇主在评估工作表现后，决定何时适当。但是，在认识到员工的贡献后，员工更有可能通过处理更复杂的工作或任务来证明自己的价值。这可带来更高效的工作场所。

3、第三次查词
3.1 可中断活动区(Interruptible activity region)
【解释】
For automation interface purposes, an Interruptible Activity Region is an Activity Group that has its Group Type set to Interruptible Activity Region.
可中断活动区域是一个活动组，其组类型设置为可中断活动区域。
可中断活动区域支持终止在活动部分流动的令牌。

【链接】
https://sparxsystems.com/enterprise_architect_user_guide/14.0/model_domains/interruptibleactivityregion.html

http://icodeguru.com/design/enterprise-architect/interruptibleactivityregion.htm

https://www.sparxsystems.eu/resources/project-development-with-uml-and-ea/activity-diagram/

【正文】
In the Dictionary pane, Interruptible Activity Regions are listed in the UML\Activity Groups folder.
In the Modeler panes, a short-cut symbol on the Interruptible Activity Region’s icon indicates that the item is a stub.
The following sections provide information about how an Interruptible Activity Region is used in the model. For more information about a property, item, model part or diagram, click it.
Properties
In addition to the standard properties an Activity Region has these properties:
• Visibility
Owned by
Activity
Owns
Comment
Constraint
Dependency — The Dependency is owned jointly by the Interruptible Activity Region and the other associated item. The access permissions you have to a Dependency are determined by the access permissions of the dependent item.
Defined in these parts of the model
Activity Model
Shown on these diagrams
Activity Diagram
Variant Diagram
Can be linked to these dictionary items
In addition to the owning Activity, an Interruptible Activity Region can be linked to the following items.
Stereotype — To make an Interruptible Activity Region valid for a Stereotype, set up Activity Group a valid item type.

【翻译】
在"建模器"窗格中，可中断活动 区域图标上的短角符号指示项目是存根 。
以下各节提供有关如何在模型中使用可中断活动区域的信息。有关属性、项、模型部件或关系图的信息，请单击它。
性能
除了标准属性外，活动区域还具有以下属性：
• 能见度
拥有者
活动
拥有
评论
约束
依赖项 – 依赖关系由可中断活动区域和其他关联项共同拥有。 对依赖项的访问权限由依赖项的访问权限决定。
在模型的这些部分中定义
活动模型
显示在这些图表上
活动图
变体图
可以链接到这些字典项
除了拥有活动之外，可中断的活动区域还可以链接到以下项。
构造型 – 要使可中断活动区域对构造型有效，请将活动组设置为有效的项目类型。

3.2限定关联 (Qualified association)
【解释】
A qualified association has a qualifier that is used to select an object (or objects) from a larger set of related objects, based upon the qualifier key.

限定关联具有一个限定符，用于根据限定符键从一组较大的相关对象中选择对象（或对象）。
【链接】
http://etutorials.org/Programming/UML/Chapter+6.+Class+Diagrams+Advanced+Concepts/Qualified+Associations/

https://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=1398623&seqNum=16

https://www.wisdomjobs.com/e-university/uml-tutorial-175/qualified-associations-13436.html

【正文】
For example, ProductDescriptions may be distinguished in a ProductCatalog by their itemID, as illustrated in Figure. As contrasted in Figure, qualification reduces the multiplicity at the far end from the qualifier, usually down from many to one. Depicting a qualifier in a domain model communicates how, in the domain, things of one class are distinguished in relation to another class. They should not, in the domain model, be used to express design decisions about lookup keys, although that is suitable in other diagrams illustrating design decisions.
Qualifiers do not usually add compelling useful new information, and we can fall into the trap of “design - think.” However, used judiciously, they can sharpen understanding about the domain. The qualified associations between Product - Catalog and ProductDescriptions provide a reasonable example of a value - added qualifier.

【翻译】
例如，产品描述项可以按其项 ID在产品类别中区分，如图所示。如图所示，限定在从限定符的远端降低了多重性，通常从多到一。在域模型中描述限定符传达了如何在域中区分一个类的事物相对于另一个类。在域模型中，它们不应用于表示有关查找键的设计决策，尽管这适用于说明设计决策的其他图表。
限定符通常不会添加引人注目的有用信息，我们可以陷入"设计-思考"的陷阱。但是，明智地使用，它们可以加深对域的理解。产品目录和产品描述之间的合格关联提供了增值限定符的合理示例.

3.3 演示原型(Breadboard prototype)
【解释】
A breadboard is a rectangular plastic board with a bunch of tiny holes in it. These holes let you easily insert electronic components to prototype (meaning to build and test an early version of) an electronic circuit, like this one with a battery, switch, resistor, and an LED (light-emitting diode).

面包板是一个长方形的塑料板，其中有一堆小孔。这些孔可让您轻松地将电子元件插入原型（这意味着构建和测试早期版本的电子电路），例如带电池、开关、电阻和 LED（发光二极管）的电路。
【链接】
https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/references/how-to-use-a-breadboard#:~:text=A%20breadboard%20is%20a%20rectangular%20plastic%20board%20with,battery%2C%20switch%2C%20resistor%2C%20and%20an%20LED%20%28light-emitting%20diode%29.

https://www.analog.com/en/analog-dialogue/studentzone/studentzone-november-2016.html#

【正文】
Modern electronic circuits are manufactured with surface-mount components that are placed automatically and solder reflowed to densely populated multilayer printed circuit boards, making breadboarding or prototyping difficult. For this reason, many engineers find it more efficient to actually lay out the board on a CAD system and assemble a small quantity of boards for the first prototypes.
However, as a student you probably don’t have access to a CAD system, printed circuit board assembly house, or the required finances. You may not even have access to a soldering iron station and other tools and machinery needed to work with small electronic components, so you need another reliable method to construct a prototype.
This is where a solderless breadboard is an invaluable aid to prototyping a circuit for an experiment or a project. These are readily available from distributors such as Digi-Key Electronics, as well as Amazon. Start with an internet search for solderless breadboards. There are a good number of them—many at very reasonable prices.
Figure 1 shows the top view of a typical solderless breadboard. The holes are designed to accept standard IC pins on 0.1" centers. The internal view of Figure 2 shows the details of the connections between the pins. The center part of the board is divided into two rows that are subdivided into a number of vertical columns having five pins connected together. The two horizontally connected rows at the top and bottom of the board make convenient buses for supply voltages and ground connections.

【翻译】
现代电子电路采用表面贴装元件制造，可自动放置，将焊件回流到人口稠密的多层印刷电路板上，使面包板或原型制作变得困难。因此，许多工程师发现，在 CAD 系统上实际布置电路板并组装少量板以用于第一个原型的效率更高。
然而，作为一个学生，你可能无法访问CAD系统，印刷电路板装配房，或所需的资金。您甚至可能无法访问焊接铁站和其他工具和机械，需要处理小型电子元件，因此您需要另一种可靠的方法来构建原型。
这是无焊面包板为实验或项目设计电路的宝贵帮助。这些从Didi-Key电子和亚马逊等分销商处随时获得。从互联网搜索无焊面包板开始。它们的数量很多，很多价格非常合理。
图 1 显示了典型的无焊面包板的顶部视图。这些孔设计用于接受 0.1" 中心上的标准 IC 引脚。图 2 的内部视图显示了引脚之间连接的详细信息。电路板的中心部分被分成两行，这些行被细分为多个垂直列，其中五个引脚连接在一起。电路板顶部和底部的两个水平连接行为电源电压和接地连接提供了方便的总线。
3.4 编程系统(Programming system)
【解释】
System programming involves designing and writing computer programs that allow the computer hardware to interface with the programmer and the user, leading to the effective execution of application software on the computer system.

系统编程涉及设计和编写计算机程序，使计算机硬件能够与程序员和用户进行接口，从而在计算机系统上有效地执行应用软件。
【链接】
https://www2.eecs.berkeley.edu/Research/Areas/PS/

https://www.techopedia.com/definition/9616/system-programming

https://www.dictionary.com/browse/system-program

【正文】
System programming is an essential and important foundation in any computer’s application development, and always evolving to accommodate changes in the computer hardware. This kind of programming requires some level of hardware knowledge and is machine dependent; the system programmer must therefore know the intended hardware on which the software is required to operate.
Additionally, the programmer may make some assumptions on the hardware and other system components. The software is usually written in a low-level programming language which is able to operate efficiently in a resource-constrained environment, and with little runtime overhead using a small library, or none at all. The low-level language enables direct control over memory access and allows the program to be written directly in an assembly language. The majority of programs are written using assembly languages such as C, C++ and C#.
System programming leads to the development of computer system software that manages and controls the computer operations. The low-level codes are very close to the hardware level and deal with things such as registers and memory allocations. The system programs or system software coordinates data transfer across the various components and deals with the compiling, linking, starting and stopping of programs, reading from files as well as writing to files.
The system programming enhances or extends the functions of an operating system and may comprise components such as drivers, utilities and updates. They enable efficient management of hardware resources such as memory, file access, I/O operations, device management and process management such as process administration and multi-tasking. An example is an operating system, which usually acts as the interface between the user, the application software, and computer hardware. The OS provides an environment that enables users to execute other programs efficiently. Comprising of a set of system programs, the operating system functions include storage management, file handling, memory management, CPU and device scheduling and management, error handling, process control and more.

【翻译】
系统编程是任何计算机应用程序开发中必不可少的重要基础，并且总是不断发展以适应计算机硬件的变化。这种编程需要一定级别的硬件知识，并且依赖于机器;因此，系统程序员必须知道软件需要操作的预定硬件。
此外，程序员可能会对硬件和其他系统组件进行一些假设。该软件通常用低级编程语言编写，这种语言能够在资源受限的环境中高效运行，并且使用小型库几乎没有运行时开销，或者根本没有。低级语言允许直接控制内存访问，并允许程序直接用程序体语言编写。大多数程序都是使用装配语言编写的，例如 C、C++和 C#。
系统编程导致计算机系统软件的发展，管理和控制计算机操作。低级代码非常接近硬件级别，并处理寄存器和内存分配等操作。系统程序或系统软件协调各种组件之间的数据传输，并处理程序的编译、链接、启动和停止、从文件读取以及写入文件。
系统编程增强或扩展操作系统的功能，可能包括驱动程序、实用程序和更新等组件。它们支持对硬件资源（如内存、文件访问、I/O 操作、设备管理和流程管理（如流程管理和多任务处理）进行高效管理。例如，操作系统通常充当用户、应用程序软件和计算机硬件之间的接口。操作系统提供了一个环境，使用户能够有效地执行其他程序。操作系统功能包括存储管理、文件处理、内存管理、CPU和设备调度与管理、错误处理、过程控制等。

3.5自由度 (Degree of freedom)
【解释】
The Degrees of Freedom refers to the number of values involved in the calculations that have the freedom to vary.

自由度用于定义可分配给统计分布的独立数量数。此数字通常是指正整数，表示对一个人计算统计问题缺失因素的能力缺乏限制。
【链接】
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/hypothesis-testing/degrees-of-freedom/

https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-degree-of-freedom-3126416

https://www.britannica.com/science/degree-of-freedom-mathematics-and-statistics

【正文】
Degrees of freedom act as variables in the final calculation of a statistic and are used to determine the outcome of different scenarios in a system, and in math degrees of freedom define the number of dimensions in a domain that is needed to determine the full vector.
To illustrate the concept of a degree of freedom, we will look at a basic calculation concerning the sample mean, and to find the mean of a list of data, we add all of the data and divide by the total number of values.
An Illustration with a Sample Mean
For a moment suppose that we know the mean of a data set is 25 and that the values in this set are 20, 10, 50, and one unknown number. The formula for a sample mean gives us the equation (20 + 10 + 50 + x)/4 = 25, where x denotes the unknown, using some basic algebra, one can then determine that the missing number, x, is equal to 20.
Let’s alter this scenario slightly. Again we suppose that we know the mean of a data set is 25. However, this time the values in the data set are 20, 10, and two unknown values. These unknowns could be different, so we use two different variables, x, and y, to denote this. The resulting equation is (20 + 10 + x + y)/4 = 25. With some algebra, we obtain y = 70- x. The formula is written in this form to show that once we choose a value for x, the value for y is completely determined. We have one choice to make, and this shows that there is one degree of freedom.
Now we’ll look at a sample size of one hundred. If we know that the mean of this sample data is 20, but do not know the values of any of the data, then there are 99 degrees of freedom. All values must add up to a total of 20 x 100 = 2000. Once we have the values of 99 elements in the data set, then the last one has been determined.
Student t-score and Chi-Square Distribution
Degrees of freedom play an important role when using the Student t-score table. There are actually several t-score distributions. We differentiate between these distributions by use of degrees of freedom.
Here the probability distribution that we use depends upon the size of our sample. If our sample size is n, then the number of degrees of freedom is n-1. For instance, a sample size of 22 would require us to use the row of the t-score table with 21 degrees of freedom.
The use of a chi-square distribution also requires the use of degrees of freedom. Here, in an identical manner as with the t-score distribution, the sample size determines which distribution to use. If the sample size is n, then there are n-1 degrees of freedom.
Standard Deviation and Advanced Techniques
Another place where degrees of freedom show up is in the formula for the standard deviation. This occurrence is not as overt, but we can see it if we know where to look. To find a standard deviation we are looking for the “average” deviation from the mean. However, after subtracting the mean from each data value and squaring the differences, we end up dividing by n-1 rather than n as we might expect.
The presence of the n-1 comes from the number of degrees of freedom. Since the n data values and the sample mean are being used in the formula, there are n-1 degrees of freedom.
More advanced statistical techniques use more complicated ways of counting the degrees of freedom. When calculating the test statistic for two means with independent samples of n1 and n2 elements, the number of degrees of freedom has quite a complicated formula. It can be estimated by using the smaller of n1-1 and n2-1.

【翻译】
自由度在统计的最终计算中充当变量，用于确定系统中不同方案的结果，在数学自由度中定义确定完整向量所需的域中的维度数。
为了说明自由度的概念，我们将查看有关样本均值的基本计算，并查找数据列表的平均值，我们添加所有数据并除以值总数。
自由度在统计的最终计算中充当变量，用于确定系统中不同方案的结果，在数学自由度中定义确定完整向量所需的域中的维度数。
为了说明自由度的概念，我们将查看有关样本均值的基本计算，并查找数据列表的平均值，我们添加所有数据并除以值总数。
具有示例均值的插图
假设我们知道数据集的平均值为25，并且此集中的值为 20、10、50 和一个未知数字。样本均值的公式为我们提供了方程（20 × 10 × 50 × x） /4 = 25，其中 x表示未知，使用一些基本代数，然后可以确定缺失的数字x等于 20。
让我们稍微改变一下此方案。我们再次假设我们知道数据集的均值为 25。但是，这一次，数据集中的值为 20、10 和两个未知值。这些未知数可能不同，因此我们使用两个不同的变量 x和y来表示这一点。生成的方程是（20 = 10 = x = y）/4 = 25。通过一些代数，我们获得y = 70-x 。 公式以此形式编写，以显示一旦我们选择了x的值，y的值将完全确定。我们有一个选择，这说明有一种自由度。
现在我们来看看一百个样本大小。如果我们知道此示例数据的平均值为 20，但不知道任何数据的值，则有 99 自由度。所有值加起来必须总计 20 x 100 = 2000。一旦我们在数据集中具有 99 个元素的值，则确定最后一个元素。
学生 t 分数和奇方分布
自由度在使用学生t-评分表时扮演着重要的角色。实际上有几个t 得分分布。我们通过使用自由度来区分这些分布。
在这里，我们使用的概率分布取决于样本的大小。如果我们的样本大小是n，则自由度数为n-1。例如，样本大小为 22 将需要我们使用具有 21 自由度的t-score表行。
使用奇方分布也需要自由度的使用。在这里，以与 t 得分分布相同的方式，样本大小确定要使用的分布。如果样本大小为n，则有n-1自由度。
标准偏差和先进技术
自由度显示的另一个位置是在标准偏差的公式中。这种情况并不大，但如果我们知道去哪里找，我们可以看到它。为了找到标准偏差，我们正在寻找与平均值的"平均"偏差。但是，在从每个数据值中减去均值并计算差值后，我们最终会像预期那样除以n-1而不是 n。
n-1的存在来自自由度的数量。由于公式中使用n数据值和样本均值，因此有n-1自由度。
更先进的统计技术使用更复杂的方法来计算自由度。在计算两个方法的测试统计时，具有 n 的独立样本1和n2元素，自由度的数量有一个相当复杂的公式。它可以通过使用较小的n1-1和n2-1
另一个不同计算自由度的方法示例是F测试。在进行F 测试中，我们每个大小为n的k样本 = 分子中的自由度为k-1，分母为k（n-1）。

3.6 垂直原型(Vertical prototype)
【解释】
A Vertical Prototype is normally developed during the later stages of rapid prototyping analysis.

垂直原型通常在快速原型分析的后期阶段开发。
【链接】
http://www.articlesfactory.com/articles/technology/vertical-prototype.html

https://www.usabilityfirst.com/glossary/horizontal-and-vertical-prototypes/index.html

https://w3.windfair.net/wind-energy/news/24827-directtech-tuv-rheinland-vertical-prototype

【正文】
The Vertical Prototype contains a stripped down version of the core functions of the system. These functions provide the ability to enter data and store it in a database, as well as the ability to display data on query screens and reports. A Vertical Prototype includes some user functionality, but more importantly, access to data. This can demonstrate to the user a “working” system, although not one that is fully functional or tuned.
【翻译】
垂直原型包含系统核心功能的精简版本。这些功能提供输入数据并将其存储在数据库中的能力，以及在查询屏幕和报表上显示数据的能力。垂直原型包括一些用户功能，但更重要的是，访问数据。这可以证明用户"工作"系统，虽然不是一个功能齐全或调谐。

3.7 实体生命史(Entity Life History)
【解释】
An entity life history (ELH) is a diagrammatic method of recording how information may change over time, and models the complete catalogue of events that can affect a data entity from its creation to its deletion, the context in which each event might occur, and the order in which events may occur. The ELH represents every possible sequence of events that can occur during the life of the entity.

体生命周期（ELH） 是一种图表方法，用于记录信息如何随着时间而变化，并绘制可能影响数据实体从创建数据实体到删除数据实体、每个事件可能发生的上下文以及事件发生顺序的完整事件目录。ELH 表示实体生命周期期间可能发生的每个事件序列。
【链接】
http://tedb.byu.edu/?page_id=501

https://www.biography.com/political-figure/kamala-harris

https://www.technologyuk.net/computing/software-development/systems-analysis/entity-life-history.shtml

【正文】
It would obviously be an overwhelming task to model the all of the events that could affect the system data at the same time, so instead we examine just one entity within the logical data structure at a time. An entity life history will be produced for each entity in the logical data structure. Information from the individual life histories can be collated at a later time to produce an entity/event matrix.
【翻译】
显然，对可能同时影响系统数据的所有事件进行建模是一项艰巨的任务，因此，我们一次只检查逻辑数据结构中的一个实体。将为逻辑数据结构中的每个实体生成实体生命周期历史记录。来自各个生命历史的信息可以在以后进行整理，以生成一个实体/事件矩阵。

3.8 企业建模(Enterprise modeling)
【解释】
Enterprise modeling is a term for the modeling of various processes, infrastructures, asset groups, or other elements of a business or organization.

企业建模是用于建模各种流程、基础结构、资产组或业务或组织的其他元素的术语。
【链接】
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/28051/enterprise-modeling

https://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-enterprise-modelling.htm

https://www.dataversity.net/enterprise-data-modeling/

【正文】
Enterprise modeling helps leaders to visualize what is going on within a business and how to make changes. Early forms of enterprise modeling helped analysts to fix hardware and deal with other sorts of troubleshooting. With the growing complexity of business IT infrastructures, enterprise modeling is becoming increasingly useful.
Various kinds of enterprise modeling help analysts or others to accomplish different tasks. Business process modeling gives professionals a bird’s eye view of a particular business process in order to help with change management. Data modeling helps database administrators and others to more efficiently plan methodology for the use, storage and recall of data, one of a contemporary business’s largest assets. Another kind enterprise modeling is function or activity modeling, which can help provide a visual demonstration of work flow.

A major part of the utility of enterprise modeling is related to the value of visuals in planning. By effectively representing structures, processes or hierarchies visually, planners can get much better information about a business and what changes would look like. Enterprise modeling software helps by automating a lot of what would otherwise have to be done manually to work up detailed and sophisticated models of complex business processes such as supply chains.
【翻译】
企业建模可帮助领导者可视化企业内部正在发生哪些事情以及如何进行更改。早期形式的企业建模帮助分析师修复硬件并处理其他类型的故障排除。随着业务 IT 基础架构的日益复杂，企业建模变得越来越有用。
各种企业建模可帮助分析师或其他人员完成不同的任务。业务流程建模使专业人员能够鸟瞰特定业务流程，以帮助进行变更管理。数据建模可帮助数据库管理员和其他人更高效地规划使用、存储和调用数据的方法，数据是当代企业最大的资产之一。另一种企业建模是函数或活动建模，它可以帮助提供工作流程的可视化演示。
企业建模实用程序的一个主要部分与视觉对象在规划中的价值有关。通过直观地有效地表示结构、流程或层次结构，规划人员可以获得有关业务以及更改的更好信息。企业建模软件通过自动化许多本来需要手动完成的工作来为复杂的业务流程（如供应链）创建详细而复杂的模型而帮助。

3.9 参与约束(Participant constraint)
【解释】
Specifies the presence of an entity when it is related to another entity in a relationship type. It is also called the minimum cardinality constraint.

指定实体与关系类型中的另一个实体相关时的存在。它也称为最小基数约束。
【链接】
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/Entity-Relationship-Participation-in-Database

https://prepinsta.com/dbms/participation-constraints/

https://www.gatevidyalay.com/participation-constraints/

【正文】
This constraint specifies the number of instances of an entity that are participating in the relationship type.
• There are two types of Participation constraint:
o Total participation
o Partial participation
Total participation constraint
• It specifies that each entity present in the entity set must mandatorily participate in at least one relationship instance of that relationship set,for this reason, it is also called as mandatory participation
• It is represented using a double line between the entity set and relationship set

Example of total participation constraint
• It specifies that each student must be enrolled in at least one course where the “student” is the entity set and relationship “enrolled in” signifies total participation
• It means that every student must have enrolled at least in one course
Partial participation
• It specifies that each entity in the entity set may or may not participate in the relationship instance of the relationship set, is also called as optional participation
• It is represented using a single line between the entity set and relationship set in the ER diagram
Example of partial participation

【翻译】
此约束指定参与关系类型的实体的实例数。
• 参与约束有两种类型：
o 参与总数
o 部分参与
总参与限制
• 它指定实体集中存在的每个实体必须强制参与该关系集的至少一个关系实例，f或此原因，也称为强制参与
• 它使用实体集和关系集之间的双行表示

总参与约束示例
• 它规定每个学生必须至少注册一门课程，其中"学生"是实体集，而"注册"的关系表示总参与
• 这意味着每个学生必须至少注册一门课程
部分参与
• 它指定实体集的每个实体可能参与关系集的关系实例，也可能不参与关系集的关系实例，也称为可选参与
• 它使用 ER关系图中实体集和关系集之间的一行表示
部分参与的例子
实体之间的一条线，即课程和在关系中注册，表示部分参与，这意味着可能有一些课程没有注册，即在这种情况下，注册是可选的

3.10概念域（Concepet domain）
【解释】
A domain is a network of computers and devices that are controlled by one set authority and that have specific guidelines.
一个域名是由一个特定的公司控制，该公司有自己的互联网存在和IP地址。
【链接】
https://www.thoughtco.com/target-domain-conceptual-metaphors-1692527

https://microtica.com/the-concept-of-domain-driven-design-explained/

https://www.brightstorm.com/math/algebra/graphs-and-functions/domain-and-range/

【正文】
An application domain applies to a specific software application and separates it clearly from other applications. A domain-specific language (DSL) is a programming language designed only for one particular domain. For example, SQL (Structured Query Language) is a domain-specific language for database management. It applies only to certain databases.
A domain in general computer terminology is also the range of values that belong to a specific attribute: for example, the range that applies to certain data types. Within a Google Sheet, the list of possible values that the user has designated for a specific column are that column’s domain.

【翻译】
应用程序域适用于特定的软件应用程序，并清楚地将它与其他应用程序分开。特定于域的语言 （DSL） 是一种仅针对特定域设计的编程语言。例如，SQL（结构化查询语言）是用于数据库管理的特定于域的语言。它仅适用于某些数据库。
一般计算机术语中的域也是属于特定属性的值范围：例如，应用于某些数据类型的范围。在Google 表格中，用户为特定列指定的可能值列表是该列的域。

3.11 经典分类理论(Classical categorization theory)
【解释】
Classification is typically conducted based on similarities of objects. However, similarity is not the only method for categorization.
分类通常基于对象的相似性进行。但是，相似性并不是分类的唯一方法。
【链接】

https://iep.utm.edu/conc-cl/

https://study.com/academy/lesson/theories-of-cognitive-categorization-classification.html

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/classification-and-categorization/

【正文】
Similarity-Based View of Classification
The boy in the opening example believed the cat was a dog because he had never been exposed to a cat before, and the cat was similar to the puppy he had met before. It had fur all over it, four legs, a long tail, and was smaller than the boy. All of these similarities made it match up to characteristics seen in a puppy; thus, the new thing must be a kind of puppy.
There are three theories of categorization based on similarity: classical, probabilistic, and exemplar.
Classical
Dating back to Ancient Greece, the classical view of categorization was introduced by Plato and is a simple grouping mechanism based on similar properties. Aristotle used this approach as he categorized living things.
You’ve probably used this approach as well. Have you ever played ‘‘20 Questions’’? The first questions are normally ‘‘Is it living?’’ or ‘‘Is it a vegetable? Animal? Mineral?’’ These questions, and the successive questions that narrow down the mark through distinct categorization, are examples of the process of using the classical view to classify.
Structuralism is a field of study that claims that in all things, humans observe the parts of the object to identify the object. This fits in with a classical framework for categorization.
A problem with strict classical categorization is that people do not always perceive things in the same way; thus, universal classifications are difficult.
Another problem is that some items that should be classified together are different enough to be confusing. If a bird must fly and have feathers, is an ostrich a bird? It has feathers but can’t fly.
Probabilistic
This leads us to the probabilistic view of categorization. Also known as conceptual clustering, this view builds on classical categorization by allowing for more generalized or ‘‘fuzzy’’ descriptions of categories. Instead of absolute descriptions needing to be met in order to classify a new item as part of an existing category, descriptions are considered likely, leaving room for broad differences between incidences within a single category.
Probabilistic views can lead to fuzzy set categories, which are groupings of entities that share many descriptors but in differing degrees. For instance, foxes and wolves may both belong to the dog classification but are very different from each other.
You can think of the probabilistic view theory as the gray space outside of decisions that are either ‘‘black or white.’’
Exemplar
Naive template theory is the theory that we hold a sample template of objects in our memories. It is required that we must first come into contact with these objects, but that contact creates a prototype of the object that is stored for future use. With each object we contact, we compare it to the prototype already stored to evaluate its category.
In the beginning, the boy above had only had the puppy template (or prototype) to go by. Because the new stimulus (the cat) matched the dog template, to some degree, it was assumed this was a type of dog. When the boy accepts that the new animal is not a dog, he will create a new ‘‘template’’ for cat using this object as the original prototype in his memory.

【翻译】
基于相似性的分类视图
在开场白中，男孩相信猫是一只狗，因为他以前从未接触过猫，而且这只猫和以前遇到的小狗很相似。它上长着皮毛，四条腿，一条长尾巴，比男孩还小。所有这些相似之处使得它符合小狗的特征;因此，新的东西必须是一种小狗。
有三种基于相似性的分类理论：经典、概率和范例。
古典
可追溯到古希腊，经典分类的观点是由柏拉图引入的，是基于相似属性的简单分组机制。亚里士多德在分类生物时用这种方法。
您可能也使用过此方法。你曾经玩过 “20 个问题” 吗？第一个问题通常是’是活的吗？动物？矿物？这些问题，以及通过不同的分类缩小标记的连续问题，是使用经典视图进行分类的过程的例子。
结构主义是一个研究领域，它声称在所有事物中，人类观察物体的部分来识别物体。这符合分类的经典框架。
严格的古典分类的一个问题在于，人们并不总是以同样的方式看待事物;因此，通用分类是困难的。
另一个问题就是，一些应该一起分类的项目是不同的，足以混淆。如果一只鸟必须飞，有羽毛，驼鸟是鸟吗？它有羽毛，但不会飞。
概率
这导致我们到分类的概率观。此视图也称为概念聚类，它基于经典分类，允许对类别进行更通用或"模糊"的描述。为了将新项目分类为现有类别的一部分，需要满足绝对描述，而是认为可能，为单个类别中发生率之间的广泛差异留下了空间。
概率视图可能导致模糊集类别，这些类别是共享许多描述符但程度不同的实体的分组。例如，狐狸和狼可能都属于狗的分类，但彼此非常不同。
你可以把概率观理论视为决策"黑色或白色"之外的灰色空间。
范例
天真的模板理论是我们把一个对象样本模板保存在我们的记忆中的理论。我们需要首先接触这些对象，但该联系人会创建存储的对象的原型，以供将来使用。对于我们接触的每个对象，我们将它与已存储的原型进行比较，以评估其类别。
一开始，上面的男孩只有小狗模板（或原型）去。因为新的刺激（猫）与狗的模板相匹配，所以在某种程度上，人们以为这是一种狗。当男孩承认新动物不是狗时，他将用这个物体作为他记忆中的原始原型为猫创建一个新的"模板"。

3.12 数据驱动(Data -drive)
【解释】
Data driven is an adjective used to refer to a process or activity that is spurred on by data, as opposed to being driven by mere intuition or personal experience.

数据驱动是一种形容词，用于指由数据刺激的过程或活动，而不是仅仅由直觉或个人经验驱动的。
【链接】
https://www.godatadrive.com/

https://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/data-drive-positivity-rate-dips-further/2122986/

https://www.techopedia.com/definition/18687/data-driven

【正文】
Being data driven means that all decisions and processes are dictated by the data. If data points to sales being down because of brand perception, then specific actions can be taken to reverse that. If data analysis reveals that users of a current generation of mobile device are leaning toward a specific feature, then the next-generation device can make use of that knowledge.
Data driven essentially means that data dictates the actions taken by the ones that execute an event or process. This is most evident in the field of big data, where data and information are the basis of all actions and gathering and analyzing of data is the core motivator. Because data is now easier to gather and inexpensive to store, big data analytics is gaining more ground as the best tool for decision making in the business world. Having so much data gives powerful insight into the world and it allows people to manipulate outcomes because of this.

【翻译】
数据驱动意味着所有决策和流程都由数据决定。如果数据表明由于品牌认知而销售额下降，则可以采取具体行动来扭转这种局面。如果数据分析显示当前一代移动设备的用户倾向于特定功能，则下一代设备可以利用该知识。
数据驱动本质上意味着数据指示执行事件或进程的执行者所执行的操作。这在大数据领域最为明显，在大数据领域，数据和信息是所有行动的基础，而数据收集和分析是核心动力。由于数据现在更易于收集且存储成本低廉，因此大数据分析作为商业世界中决策的最佳工具越来越深入。有这么多的数据提供了强大的洞察力的世界，它允许人们操纵结果，因为这一点。

4、第四次查词
4.1接收事件动作(Accept event action)
【解释】
AcceptEventAction is an action that waits for the occurrence of an event meeting specified condition. If an Accept Event Action has no incoming edges, then the Action starts when the containing activity or Structured Node starts, whichever most immediately contains the Action. In addition, an Accept Event Action with no incoming edges remains enabled after it accepts an Event. It does not terminate after accepting an Event and outputting a value, but continues to wait for other Events. An Accept Event Action that has no incoming edges and is contained by a Structured Node is terminated when its container is terminated.
接受事件操作是等待事件会议指定条件的发生的操作。如果"接受事件操作"没有传入边缘，则操作在包含活动或结构化节点启动时启动，以最立即包含操作为准。此外，没有传入边的接受事件操作在接受事件后保持启用状态。它在接受事件并输出值后不会终止，而是继续等待其他事件。当容器终止时，将终止没有传入边缘且由结构化节点包含的接受事件操作。
【链接】
https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/SSB2MU_8.2.0/com.ibm.rhp.uml.diagrams.doc/topics/t_acceptevent.html

https://www.uml-diagrams.org/activity-diagrams-reference.html

http://www.herongyang.com/UML/Activity-Diagram-Accept-Event-Notation.html

【正文】
About this task
The Accept Event Action waits for a specified event, not a timeout like AcceptTimeEvent, and the event is specified in the Features dialog of the Accept Event Action.
Procedure

1. Click the to open the activity diagram.
2. To add the event to the diagram, click on the button, and drag and drop on the activity diagram where you want to be created. to send the action, click on Send Action button, and drag and drop it on the action to send.
   You can specify any of the following actions:
   Event to send
   Event target
   Values for event arguments
   Accept Event Actions show that the process is waiting for an event to occur. The constraints for both, Accept Event Action and Send Action, are that they must refer to a valid event. If the event is not valid, an error appears in the Check view.
   【翻译】
   关于此任务
   "接受事件操作"等待指定的事件，而不是像"接受时间事件"这样的超时，并且该事件在"接受事件操作"的"功能"对话框中指定。
   程序
3. 单击 以打开活动关系图。
4. 若要将事件添加到关系图， 请单击该按钮，然后拖放要创建的活动图。要发送操作，请单击"发送操作 "按钮，然后将其拖放在要发送的操作上。
   您可以指定以下任何操作：
   要发送的事件
   事件目标
   事件参数的值
   接受事件操作显示进程正在等待事件发生。"接受事件操作"和"发送操作"的约束是它们必须引用有效的事件。如果事件无效，则"检查"视图中将显示错误。

4.2功能层次图(Function Heirarchy Diagram)
【解释】
A functional hierarchy diagram is a diagram that presents all the functions involved in your system, which uses a hierarchical structure like an organizational chart. It’s used to define the elementary functions and how functions are related to one another.
功能层次结构图是一个显示系统中涉及的所有功能的图表，它使用层次结构（如组织结构图）。它用于定义基本函数以及函数如何彼此关联。
【链接】
https://www.edrawsoft.com/functional-hierarchy-diagram-example.html

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/functional-hierarchy

https://online.visual-paradigm.com/diagrams/templates/organization-chart/functional-organization-template/

【正文】
The functional hierarchy conveys the transformation of software specifications into the essential functions (functional units) that the software product must perform to execute the operational or business processes. It provides traceability of the software requirements to the initial software product design configuration.
The functional hierarchy provides a gage of the software product complexity in three manners:
The number of levels of decomposition.
The breadth of each level of decomposition.
The number of fundamental functional elements (functional units) from which the structural design is to be derived.

【翻译】
功能层次结构将软件规范转换为软件产品执行操作或业务流程必须执行的基本功能（功能单元）。它为初始软件产品设计配置提供了软件要求的可追溯性。
功能层次结构以以下三种方式提供了软件产品复杂性的一个要求：
分解级别的数量。
每个分解级别的广度。
从中派生结构设计的基本功能元素（功能单元）的数量。
在整个功能层次结构中，分解级别的数量将不一致。与分解主函数涉及的层数很好地表示要执行的数据处理事务的复杂性。每个分解级别的广度意味着在软件组件集成和测试过程中将遇到的复杂性。功能单元的数量提供了软件单元设计、代码和测试活动范围的初始指示。然而，由于软件设计综合活动，这一指标将牢固确立。在软件设计合成过程中，通用或紧密耦合的功能单元可以组合成一个结构单元，从而减少软件单元设计、编码和测试的预期工作量。

4.3复合属性(Composite Attribute)
【解释】
ER is a great-level conceptual details version diagram. Entity-Connection version is based on the idea of real-planet organizations and the relationship between the two.
ER 是一个高级概念细节版本图。实体连接版本基于真实行星组织的想法和两者之间的关系。
【链接】
https://www.exploredatabase.com/2017/02/What-is-composite-attribute-in-er-model-give-example.html

https://prepinsta.com/dbms/composite-attribute/

https://www.careerride.com/mchoice/composite-attribute-multivalued-attribute-derived-attribute-definitionsfeatures-da-8379.aspx

【正文】
ER modeling enables you to evaluate details specifications systematically to make a properly-designed database. So, it really is considered a greatest process to complete ER modeling well before employing your data bank.
Entity relationship diagram screens the connections of entity establish stored in a data source. To put it differently, we could claim that ER diagrams allow you to explain the logical framework of databases. Initially look, an ER diagram seems very similar to the flowchart. Even so, ER Diagram contains many professional emblems, as well as its definitions turn this model distinctive.
An actual-planet point both lifestyle or non-dwelling that is quickly well-known and nonrecognizable. It really is something from the enterprise that is to be represented in our database. It can be an actual point as well as a reality in regards to the enterprise or even an event that happens in the real world.
An entity could be spot, individual, subject, event or perhaps a concept, which retailers details from the data base. The qualities of entities are must have an feature, as well as a special essential. Every entity is made up of some ‘attributes’ which symbolize that entity.
Relationship
Relationship is certainly not but a connection among a couple of organizations. E.g., Tom works within the Chemistry department. Entities take part in relationships. We could often establish relationships with verbs or verb words.
Weak Organizations
A weakened entity the type of entity which doesn’t have its important attribute. It might be discovered uniquely by thinking about the major crucial of another entity. For your, weakened entity collections must have engagement.

【翻译】
ER 建模使您能够系统地评估细节规范，从而创建设计正确的数据库。因此，在使用数据库之前，确实被认为是完成 ER 建模的一个最大过程。
一个实际的行星点既生活方式或非居住，是迅速众所周知和无法识别的。它确实来自企业，在我们的数据库中表示。它可以是一个实际点，以及一个现实，有关企业，甚至发生在现实世界的事件。
实体可能是现场、个人、主题、事件或概念，零售商从数据库中详细说明。实体的素质必须具有一种特征，以及一种特殊的本质。每个实体都由一些符号化为该实体的"属性"。
关系
关系当然不是几个组织之间的联系。汤姆在化学系工作。实体参与关系。我们常常可以与动词或动词词建立关系。
弱组织
弱化实体，即没有重要属性的实体类型。通过思考另一个实体的主要关键点，可以发现它的独特之处。对于您的，弱化的实体集合必须具有参与度。

4.4对象约束语言(Object Constrain Language)
【解释】
Object Constrain Language can be used not only to write constraints, but also to write expressions on any element in the UML diagram. Each OCL expression can indicate a value or object in the system.

对象约束语言不仅用来写约束，还能够用来对UML图中的任何元素写表达式。每个OCL表达式都能指出系统中的一个值或者对象。
【链接】
https://www.omg.org/spec/OCL/2.4/PDF

Sample: The Object Constraint Language (csusb.edu)

http://dictionary.sensagent.com/Object%20Constraint%20Language/en-en/

【正文】
OCL is based on set theory and predicate logic in mathematics, and it has a formal mathematical semantics, but it does not use some kind of mathematical symbol. Because although mathematical symbols can express things clearly and without ambiguity, very few experts can understand them. Therefore, mathematical symbols are not suitable for use in a widely used standard language.

Natural language is the easiest to understand, but it is ambiguous. OCL took the compromise between natural language and mathematical symbols and used ordinary ASCII characters to express the same concepts in mathematics. If you don’t like the current OCL expression, the OCL specification also allows you to define your own set of OCL symbols, which is understandable because OCL has a clear mathematical semantics.

Strong type of language
OCL is a type language, and the value of any expression belongs to one type. This type can be a predefined standard type such as Boolean or Integer, or it can be an element in a UML diagram, such as an object. It can also be a collection of these elements, such as a collection of objects, packages, ordered collections, and so on.

Declarative language
Expressions simply describe what should be done, not how. Because OCL is a manifesto language, expressions in UML are elevated to the realm of pure modeling, ignoring the details of the implementation and the language of the implementation.

Type and syntax
OCL originated from the Object Time Limit Proposal submitted by BIM in 1997 in response to OMG’s “Object-Oriented Analysis and Design Standards” request, and OCL is part of that proposal. With OCL, four types of constraints can be described, namely invariable, pre-condition, post-condition and guardianship condition.

1. Invariance is a rule that remains true for the life of the property.

2. The pre-condition is that an operation must be true when it is called. It is an assertion, not an executable statement.

3. The post-condition is that the operation must be true when it is completed. It is not an executable statement but an assertion that must be true.

4. The guardianship rule is that an object must be really constrained before it can transition from one state to another. Like.

【翻译】
对象约束语言的基础是数学中的集合论和谓词逻辑，并且它有一个形式化的数学语义，但是它并没有使用某种数学符号。因为虽然数学符号能够清晰的、无歧义的表达事物，但是只有极少的专家可以看懂。所以数学符号并不适合用于一个广泛应用的标准语言。
自然语言是最易懂的，但是它是含混不清晰的。取了自然语言和数学符号的折中方案，使用普通的ASCII字符来表达数学中同样的概念。如果你不喜欢当前的对象约束语言表达方法，对象约束语言规范还允许你定义自己的对象约束语言符号集，这点是可以理解的，因为OCL有一个清晰的数学语义。
强类型的语言
OCL是一个类型语言，任何表达式的值都是属于一个类型的。这个类型可以是预定义的标准类型例如Boolean或者Integer，也可以是UML图中的元素例如对象。也可以是这些元素组成的集合，例如对象的集合、包、有序集合等等。
声明式的语言
表达式仅仅描述了应该去做"什么"，而不是应该"怎样"去做。因为OCL是宣言式语言，所以UML中的表达式被提升到了纯建模的领域，而不必理会实现的细节和实现的语言。
类型和语法
OCL起源于1997年BIM公司为响应OMG的"面向对象分析和设计标准"征求稿所提交的"对象时间限制提议"，OCL是该提议的部分内容。 用OCL可以描述四类约束，分别是不变量、前置条件、后置条件和监护条件。
1）不变量是在属性的生命期内一直保持为真的规则。
2）前置条件是在一个操作被调用时必须为真的约束。它是一个断言，不是可执行语句。
3）后置条件就是在操作完成时必须为真的约束。它不是可执行语句而是断言，必须为真。
4）监护规则是在对象能够从一种状态转变为另一种状态前其值必须为真的约束。

4.5抽象用例(Abstract use case)
【解释】
An abstract use case is a particular type of use case that is not directly invoked by an actor but is called by another use case.
抽象用例是一种特定类型的用例，不是由执行组件直接调用，而是由另一个用例调用。
【链接】
http://www.bookrags.com/research/abstract-and-concrete-use-cases-wcs/

https://stackoverflow.com/questions/23974448/abstract-use-case-in-enterprise-architect

https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/use-cases-project-manager-know-8262

【正文】
When two or more use cases have a sequence of the same steps, these steps are extracted and put into a common use case. This common, or abstract, use case is then available to be included in any other use case within the system. Abstract use cases eliminate redundancy and promote reuse, a goal of object-oriented systems design.
Because an abstract use case contains only a subset of the steps in a flow of events, it may not make sense as a standalone use case. An abstract use case is included as part of one or more concrete use cases in order to represent a complete flow of events.

【翻译】
当两个或多个用例具有相同步骤的序列时，将提取这些步骤并放入常见用例中。然后，此常见或抽象用例可包含在系统内任何其他用例中。摘要用例消除了冗余，促进了重用，这是面向对象系统设计的目标。
由于抽象用例仅包含事件流中步骤的子集，因此作为独立用例可能没有意义。抽象用例包含在一个或多个具体用例中，以表示事件的完整流。

4.6关键区域(Critical region)
【解释】
The critical region is the region of values that corresponds to the rejection of the null hypothesis at some chosen probability level.
关键区域是对应于拒绝的值区域在某些选定的概率级别上为零假设。
【链接】
https://www.dictionary.com/browse/critical-region

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/critical%20region

https://www.thefreedictionary.com/critical+region

【正文】
One tailed and two tailed tests
The statistical tests used will be one tailed or two tailed depending on the
nature of the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis.
The following hypothesis applies to test for the mean:
When we are interested only in the extreme values that are greater than or less than a comparative value (µ0) we use a one tailed test to test for significance. When we are interested in determining that things are
different or not equal, we use a two tailed.
 To determine the critical region for a normal distribution, we use the
table for the standard normal distribution. If the level of significance is = 0.10, then for a one tailed test the critical region is below z = -1.28 or above z = 1.28. For a two tailed test, use /2 = 0.05 and the critical region is below z = -1.645 and above z = 1.645.
If the absolute value of the calculated statistics has a value equal to or greater than the critical value, then the null hypotheses, H0 should be rejected and the alternate hypotheses, H1.
 To determine the critical region for a t-distribution, we use the table of the t-distribution. (Assume for the moment that we use a t-distribution with 20 degrees of freedom). If the level of significance is  = .10, then for a one tailed test t = -1.325 or t = 1.325. For a two tailed test, use /2 = 0.05 and then t = -1.725 and t = 1.725. If the absolute value of the calculated statistics has a value equal to or greater than the critical value,then the null hypotheses, H0 will be rejected and the alternate hypotheses, H1, is assumed to be correct.
【翻译】
一个尾部测试和两个尾部测试
使用的统计测试将是一个尾或两个尾，具体取决于
零假设和替代假设的性质。
以下假设适用于均值测试：
当我们只对大于或小于比较值 （+0），我们使用单尾测试来测试
意义。当我们有兴趣确定事情是不同或不相等，我们使用双尾。
• 要确定正态分布的关键区域，我们使用用于标准正态分布的表。如果显著性级别= 0.10，那么对于单尾测试，关键区域低于 z = -1.28 或高于 z = 1.28。对于双尾测试，使用 /2 = 0.05 和关键区域低于 z = -1.645，高于 z = 1.645。如果绝对值计算的统计信息的值等于或大于关键值值，然后空假设，H0应被拒绝和备用
假设， H1 。
• 要确定 t 分布的关键区域，我们使用t 分布。（假设我们使用 t 分布20 自由度）。如果显著性级别为 .10，则对于单尾测试 t = -1.325 或 t = 1.325。对于双尾测试，请使用/2= 0.05，然后 t = -1.725 和 t = 1.725。如果计算的统计数据的值等于或大于临界值，然后空假设， H0 将被拒绝和备用假设，H1，被认为是正确的。

4.7同级评审(Peer review)
【解释】
同行评议是医学研究的质量控制措施。这是一个过程，专业人士审查彼此的工作，以确保它是准确，相关和重要的。
【链接】
https://www.elsevier.com/reviewers/what-is-peer-review

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/peer%20review

https://authorservices.wiley.com/Reviewers/journal-reviewers/what-is-peer-review/index.html

【正文】
Types of peer review
Peer review comes in different flavours: you must therefore check which variant is employed by the journal on which you are working so you’re aware of the respective rules. Each system has its own advantages and disadvantages. Often one type of review will be preferred by a subject community but there is an increasing call towards more transparency around the peer review process. In case of questions regarding the peer review model employed by the journal for which you have been invited to review, consult the journal’s homepage or contact the editorial office directly.
Single blind review
In this type of review, the names of the reviewers are hidden from the author. This is the traditional method of reviewing and is the most common type by far. Points to consider regarding single blind review include:
• Reviewer anonymity allows for impartial decisions – the reviewers should not be influenced by the authors.
• Authors may be concerned that reviewers in their field could delay publication, giving the reviewers a chance to publish first.
• Reviewers may use their anonymity as justification for being unnecessarily critical or harsh when commenting on the authors’ work.
Double-blind review
Both the reviewer and the author are anonymous in this model. Some advantages of this model are listed below.
• Author anonymity limits reviewer bias, for example based on an author’s gender, country of origin, academic status or previous publication history.
• Articles written by prestigious or renowned authors are considered on the basis of the content of their papers, rather than their reputation.
But bear in mind that despite the above, reviewers can often identify the author through their writing style, subject matter or self-citation – it is exceedingly difficult to guarantee total author anonymity. More information for authors can be found in our double-blind peer review guidelines.
Triple-blind review
With triple-blind review, reviewers are anonymous and the author’s identity is unknown to both the reviewers and the editor. Articles are anonymized at the submission stage and are handled in such a way to minimize any potential bias towards the author(s). However, it should be noted that:
• the complexities involved with anonymizing articles/authors to this level are considerable
• as with double-blind review; there is still a possibility for the editor and/or reviewers to correctly divine the author’s identity from their style, subject matter, citation patterns or a number of other methodologies
Open review
Open peer review is an umbrella term for many different models aiming at greater transparency during and after the peer review process. The most common definition of open review is when both the reviewer and author are known to each other during the peer review process. Other types of open peer review consist of:
• publication of reviewers’ names on the article page.
• publication of peer review reports alongside the article, whether signed or anonymous.
• publication of peer review reports (signed or anonymous) together with authors’ and editors’ responses alongside the article.
• publication of the paper after a quick check and opening a discussion forum to the community who can comment (named or anonymous).

【翻译】
同行评审的类型
同行评议有不同的口味：因此，您必须检查您所工作的期刊使用了哪种变体，以便您了解相应的规则。每个系统都有自己的优点和缺点。通常，一种审查类型是主题社区的首选，但越来越多的呼吁，要求提高同行审查过程的透明度。如果您被邀请审阅的期刊采用的同行评审模式有疑问，请查阅期刊主页或直接联系编辑部。
单盲复习
在这种类型的审阅中，审阅者的姓名对作者隐藏。这是传统的复习方法，是迄今为止最常见的类型。关于单次盲目审查要考虑的事项包括：
• 审阅者匿名允许做出公正的决定– 审阅者不应受到作者的影响。
• 作者可能担心其领域的审阅者可能会延迟出版，使审阅者有机会先出版。
• 评论者可能会以匿名性作为在评论作者作品时不必要地批评或严厉的理由。
双盲评论
在此模型中，审阅者和作者都是匿名的。下面列出了此模型的一些优点。
• 作者匿名性限制了审查者偏见，例如基于作者的性别、原籍国、学术地位或以前的出版历史。
• 著名或著名作家所写的文章是根据论文内容而不是声誉来考虑的。
但请记住，尽管有上述情况，审阅者通常可以通过其写作风格、主题或自我引文来识别作者，因此很难保证作者完全匿名。有关作者的更多信息，请参阅我们的双盲同行评审指南。
三盲评论
对于三盲审阅，审阅者是匿名的，审阅者与编辑都不知道作者的身份。文章在提交阶段是匿名的，处理方式是尽可能减少对作者的任何潜在偏见。然而，应当指出：
• 匿名文章/作者到这个水平所涉及的复杂性是相当大的
• 与双盲审查一样;编辑和/或审评者仍有可能从作者的风格、主题、引文模式或许多其他方法中正确理解作者的身份
公开评论
开放式同行评审是许多不同模式的一个总括术语，旨在提高同行评审过程中和之后的透明度。开放式评审的最常见定义是在同行评审过程中，审阅者与作者彼此了解时。其他类型的开放式同行评审包括：
• 在文章页面上公布审阅者的姓名。
• 与文章一起发表同行评议报告，无论是签名的还是匿名的。
• 发表同行评议报告（签名或匿名），以及作者和编辑在文章旁边的答复。
• 论文发表后，快速检查，并打开一个讨论论坛，社区谁可以评论（命名或匿名）。
许多人认为，这是防止恶意评论、停止剽窃、防止评论者遵循自己的议程、鼓励公开、诚实评论的最佳方法。另一些人则认为公开评论是一个不太诚实的过程，在这种过程中，礼貌或害怕报复可能会导致评论者拒绝或调低批评。

4.8需求跟踪（Requirement traceability）
【解释】
Requirements traceability refers to the ability to describe and follow the life of a requirement, in both forwards and backwards direction (i.e. from its origins, through its development and specification, to its subsequent deployment and use, and through all periods of on-going refinement and iteration in any of these phases.)1

需求可追溯性是指在向前和向后方向（即从需求的起源、其开发和规范，到后续的部署和使用，以及通过任何这些阶段的所有不断优化和迭代期间）描述和遵循需求的生命周期的能力。1
【链接】
https://requirements.com/Content/What-is/what-is-requirements-traceability

https://www.guru99.com/traceability-matrix.html

https://www.gatherspace.com/why-requirements-traceability-is-so-important/

【正文】
Requirements Traceability Matrix
The most common way of ensuring that there is full requirements traceability is by means of a Requirements Traceability Matrix (RTM). The traceability matrix is used to verify that all stated and derived requirements are associated with corresponding design elements, system components, modules and other project deliverables. This is known as the forward trace. The RTM is also used to verify and document the original source of the requirements so that if questions should arise by the customer regarding why certain features were included, there is a comprehensive audit trail. This is known as the backward trace.

The requirements traceability matrix itself can be created using simple tools like a spreadsheet or even on paper. However to avoid the need to maintain lots of separate artifacts, an integrated requirements management system is usually the best choice.
Such systems allow you to manage the list of requirements and associate the other project artifacts (test cases, use cases, tasks, defects, source code revisions, presentations, interview notes, etc.) with them in a collaborative environment. When you can link all of these items together in both directions, you have what is known as end to end traceability.
【翻译】
需求可追溯性矩阵
确保有完整需求可追溯性的最常见方式是使用需求可追溯性矩阵 （RTM）。可追溯性矩阵用于验证所有声明和派生要求是否与相应的设计元素、系统组件、模块和其他项目可交付成果相关。这称为前进跟踪。RTM 还用于验证和记录需求的原始来源，以便如果客户对为什么包含某些功能产生疑问，则有全面的审计跟踪。这称为向后跟踪。
需求可追溯性矩阵本身可以使用简单的工具（如电子表格）甚至纸上创建。但是，为了避免需要维护大量单独的工件，集成的需求管理系统通常是最佳选择。
此类系统允许您管理需求列表，并在协作环境中将其他项目工件（测试用例、用例、任务、缺陷、源代码修订、演示文稿、面试笔记等）与它们关联。当您可以在两个方向上将所有这些项目链接在一起时，您就拥有所谓的端到端可追溯性。

4.9分布式协同(Distributed coordination)
【解释】
Distributed Coordination (DCF) is a mandatory technology to prevent collisions in IEEE 802.11-based Wi-Fi standards. It is a medium access control (MAC) sub-layer technology for using collision avoidance in carrier-sensing multiple access (CSMA/CA) areas.

分布式协调功能 （DCF） 是一种强制性技术，用于防止基于 IEEE 802.11 的 WLAN 标准 （Wi-Fi） 中的碰撞。它是一种中等访问控制 （MAC） 子层技术，用于使用具有避撞功能的载波感应多重访问 （CSMA/CA） 的区域。
【链接】
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/distributed-coordination-function

https://people.engr.tamu.edu/bettati/Courses/410/2014A/Slides/distributed_coordination.pdf

https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9152051

【正文】
The DCF uses a collision avoidance mechanism to control access to the shared wireless medium. This is because collisions are difficult to detect in a wireless environment, so a backoff-based collision avoidance technique, rather than the collision detection technique common in standard Ethernet, is used.
Each wireless station/user first listens to the wireless medium to detect transmissions. If the medium is sensed to be busy, the user waits until the ongoing transmission is over. If the medium is detected to be idle for a Distributed Inter-Frame Space (DIFS) interval, the user enters a backoff procedure. In the backoff procedure, the user selects a random backoff time (in slots) from a contention window, and starts decrementing a backoff counter for each slot that is sensed to be idle. If, while counting down, another user begins transmitting, the user in backoff mode suspends its counting, until the transmitting user finishes and the medium is sensed to be idle for a DIFS duration, and resumes its countdown thereafter. Once the backoff interval expires, the user begins transmission. The value of the random backoff interval is chosen from an interval called the Contention Window (CW), which lies between two preconfigured values, CW_min and CW_max. The contention window is set to CW_min at the first transmission attempt, and doubles after each unsuccessful attempt, until it reaches CW_max (after which it remains at CW_max). The contention window is reset to CW_min after every successful transmission.

【翻译】
DCF 使用避免碰撞机制来控制对共享无线介质的访问。这是因为在无线环境中很难检测到碰撞，因此使用了基于回回的避免碰撞技术，而不是标准以太网中常见的碰撞检测技术。
每个无线站/用户首先侦听无线介质以检测传输。如果感觉介质繁忙，用户将等待正在进行的传输结束。如果检测到介质在分布式帧间空间 （DIFS） 间隔内处于空闲状态，则用户将输入回回过程。在回回过程中，用户从争用窗口选择随机回回时间（插槽中），并开始为感觉空闲的每个插槽减小回回计数器。如果在倒计时时，其他用户开始传输，则处于回给模式的用户将暂停其计数，直到传输用户完成，并且介质被感觉到在 DIFS 持续时间内处于空闲状态，并在之后恢复倒计时。回信间隔到期后，用户开始传输。随机回回间隔的值是从称为争用窗口 （CW） 的间隔中选择的，该间隔位于两个预配置的值（CW_min 和 CW_max。争用窗口设置为CW_min传输尝试时显示，并在每次尝试失败后加倍，直到达到 CW_max（之后仍为 CW_max）。每次成功传输后，争CW_min窗口都会重置为"大小"。

4.10业务流程改造(Business Process Reengineering)
【解释】
Business process reengineering (BPR) is an approach to change management in which the related tasks required to obtain a specific business outcome are radically redesigned.

业务流程重新设计 （BPR） 是一种变革管理方法，其中从根本上重新设计了获取特定业务结果所需的相关任务。
【链接】
https://www.toolshero.com/quality-management/business-process-reengineering-bpr/

https://searchcio.techtarget.com/definition/business-process-reengineering

https://www.sweetprocess.com/business-process-reengineering/

【正文】
An important goal of BPR is to analyze workflows within and between enterprises in order to optimize end-to-end processes and eliminate tasks that do not provide the customer with value.
The principles of business process reengineering
In 1993, Hammer and organizational theorist James Champy published a book to expand upon the ideas Hammer proposed in his research paper. The book, which was entitled “Reengineering the Corporation: A Manifesto for Business Revolution,” quickly became a national bestseller. The authors suggested seven principles for reengineering a work process and achieving a significant level of improvement in quality, time management, speed and profitability.

1. Organize around outcomes, not tasks.
2. Identify all the processes in an organization and prioritize them in order of redesign urgency.
3. Integrate information processing work into the real work that produces the information.
4. Treat geographically dispersed resources as though they were centralized.
5. Link parallel activities in the workflow instead of just integrating their results.
6. Put the decision point where the work is performed and build control into the process.
7. Capture information once and at the source.
   5 Steps to business process redesign
   The business community’s enthusiasm for business process reengineering inevitably generated many interpretations for how radical change should be implemented. For example, while Hammer used the word reengineering and provided business leaders with broad guiding principles, Thomas Davenport used the word redesign and provided business leaders with more concrete advice, emphasizing the value of prototypes, simulations and tests.
   Davenport’s book with James Short, entitled “The New Industrial Engineering: Information Technology and Business Process Redesign,” suggested that business leaders use a five-step approach to radically change workflow:
8. Develop the business vision and process objectives.
9. Identify the processes to be redesigned.
10. Understand and measure the existing processes.
11. Identify IT levers.
12. Design and build a prototype of the new process.
    BPR team member roles
    Both Hammer and Davenport agreed on the importance of having a serious commitment from the top executives of the company and the need to secure buy-in from all departments affected by the process redesign. Many implementations of BPR during the late 1980s and mid-1990s used a team approach that reflected BPR’s top-down management philosophy. Such a team might look like this:
    Team Leader - a senior executive who has envisioned and authorized the overall reengineering effort. The team leader is responsible for appointing the process owner.
    Process Owner - a senior-level manager in charge of a specific business process. The process owner is responsible for assembling a team to reengineer the process he or she oversees.
    Reengineering Team - a group that is composed of insiders whose work involves the process being reengineered and outsiders whose jobs will not be affected by changes in process. The reengineering team is responsible for analyzing the existing process and overseeing its redesign.
    Steering Committee – a group of senior managers who have championed the concept of reengineering within the organization and set specific goals for improving performance. The steering committee, which is led by the Team Leader, is responsible for arbitrating disputes and helping process owners make decisions about competing priorities.

【翻译】
BPR 的一个重要目标是分析企业内部和企业之间的工作流，以优化端到端流程，并消除不为客户提供价值的任务。
业务流程再造原理
1993年，哈默和组织理论家詹姆斯·尚皮出版了一本书，以扩展哈默在他的研究论文中提出的想法。该书的标题是"公司再造：商业革命宣言"，很快成为全国畅销书。作者提出了重新设计工作流程和在质量、时间管理、速度和盈利能力方面显著提高的七项原则。

1. 围绕结果而不是任务进行组织。
2. 确定组织中的所有流程，并根据重新设计的紧迫性确定其优先级。
3. 将信息处理工作集成到生成信息的实际工作中。
4. 将地理上分散的资源视为集中资源。
5. 链接工作流中的并行活动，而不是仅仅集成其结果。
6. 将执行工作的决策点放在流程中，并生成控制。
7. 一次和源头捕获信息。
   业务流程重新设计的 5 个步骤
   商界对业务流程再造的热情不可避免地对如何实施根本性变革产生了许多解释。例如，虽然哈默使用"重新设计"一词，并为商业领袖提供了广泛的指导原则，但托马斯·达文波特则使用了重新设计一词，并为商业领袖提供了更具体的建议，强调了原型、模拟和测试的价值。
   Davenport 与 James Short 的著作《新工业工程：信息技术和业务流程重新设计》建议企业领导者采用五步法从根本上改变工作流程：
8. 制定业务愿景和流程目标。
9. 确定要重新设计的流程。
10. 了解并衡量现有流程。
11. 确定 IT 杠杆。
12. 设计和构建新流程的原型。
    BPR 团队成员角色
    Hammer 和 Davenport 都同意，公司高层执行官必须做出认真承诺，并且需要获得受流程重新设计影响的所有部门的支持。20 世纪 80 年代末和 90 年代中期，BPR 的许多实施都使用了反映 BPR 自上而下管理理念的团队方法。这样的团队可能看起来像这样：
    团队领导- 一位高级主管，他设想并授权了整体的重新设计工作。团队领导负责指定流程所有者。
    流程所有者 - 负责特定业务流程的高级经理。流程所有者负责组建团队来重新设计他或她监督的流程。
    再造团队- 由内部人员组成的团队，其工作涉及被重新设计的过程和外部人员的工作不会受到流程变化的影响。重新设计团队负责分析现有流程并监督其重新设计。
    指导委员会—— 一组高级管理人员，他们倡导在组织内重新设计的概念，并设定提高绩效的具体目标。指导委员会由团队领导，负责仲裁争议并帮助流程所有者就相互竞争的优先事项做出决策。
    重新设计沙皇– 负责日常协调所有正在进行的再造活动的个人。沙皇的责任是成为促进者，并开发组织用于重新设计工作流程的技术和工具。
     
    二、报告档
    1、需求分析与建模读书心得
    本学习一共学习了14章、五个部分，五个部分分别是绪论、需求获取、需求分析、需求的规格化与验证、需求管理及工程管理。
    在第一部分绪论，中学习到了软件的发展经历了以“机器”“应用”“企业”为中心的三个阶段。这也是软件从一开始的新型项目到逐渐完整的一个制作体系形成的过程。其中关于需求规格说明和需求管理的缺陷是软件开发中最常见的两类重要问题。而导致需求问题的原因中，未能很好的理解和掌握。应用型软件的模拟特性以及由此而产生的一系列影响的要求。软件可以分为三种类别：面向专业用户的纯工具型软件、面向普通用户的纯工具型软件和应用型软件。应用型软件正确的工作基础是具有包括目的性、正确性和显示可理解性的模拟性。需求问题的具体原因有非技术性和社会性因素重视不足的态度问题，传统需求分析方法的缺陷的外部问题。
    第二部分需求分析中，学习到需求工程是所有需求处理活动的总和，它收集信息、分析问题、整合观点、记录需求并验证其正确性，最终反映软件被应用后与其环境互动形成的期望效应。需求工程包括需求开发（需求获取、需求分析、需求规格说明、需求验证）和需求管理两个方面。需求工程师需要具备认知学和社会学等方面比如认知心理学，人类学，社会学，语言学，哲学知识等理论指导和专业、分析、交流、观察、建模、写作、创新和协调等技能。
    软件系统的涉众可以定义为所有能够影响软件系统的实现，或者会被实现后的软件系统所影响的个人和团体。常见的涉众类别有用户，客户，开发者，管理者，领域专家，政府力量，市场力量等。涉众群体不是固定不变的。按照复杂程度可以将信息系统分为小型系统，组织级系统，战略信息系统，组织间系统四种类型。涉众分析包括涉众识别，涉众描述，涉众评估（包括基于涉众扩展特征建立的分布图进行优先级评估，最终得到参与者，环境设定者，被影响者，观众四种类型。还有风险评估和共赢分析），涉众选择（包括以完整采样，态度积极，数量适中，比例恰当为标准的代表采样，参与策略，用户替代源等）。硬数据，包括定量（数据收集表格，统计报表）和定性（整个组织的描述文档，业务指导文档，业务备忘）硬数据两种。常用的硬数据采样技术是随机抽样和分层抽样。
    需求规格说明活动就是将需求极其软件解决方案进行定义和文档化，并传递给开发人员的需求工程活动。编写需求规格说明文档：清晰明确结构化的文档可以将软件系统的需求信息和解决方案更好的传递给所有的开发者；可以拓展人们的知识记忆能力；可以成为各方人员之间有关软件系统的协议基准；可以成为项目开发活动的一个重要依据；可以尽早发现和减少可能的需求错误，从而减少项目的返工，降低项目的工作量；可以成为有效的智力资产。需求规格说明文档的类型不同表现在，名称，内容，组织方式，表达方式，用途和作用，使用的辅助性。需求规格说明文档的写作需要注意：内容的组织，表达方式，细节描述。优秀的需求规格说明文档应该具备正确性，无歧义，完备性，一致性，根据重要性和稳定性分级，可验证，可修改，可跟踪。
    第三、四、五部分，很多需求分析的工作是从需求调研开始的，我们就从这里说起吧。需求调研是需求分析最重要的一环，也最集中地体现了需求分析的特点——既是一份体力活儿，更是一份技术活儿。它既要求我们具有一种理解能力、设计能力，更要求我们具有一种与人交往、沟通的能力。正确的做法是，我们对客户提出的需求进行深入理解以后，运用我们专业知识，提出比客户的原始需求更加合理、可操作的解决方案，让客户感觉你说的正是他们想要的。如果能够这样，客户不仅能够欣然接收你提出的方案，而且会感觉你非常专业，你在客户心目中的形象也会无形中提高，使你有更多的机会提出有利于开发的可行方案，降低开发的风险。这毫无疑问会形成一个良性循环，但要做到这一点并不容易，毫无疑问，在与客户接触初期的表现起到了极其关键的作用。
    需求基线就是被明确和固定的需求集合，内容包括软件需求自身和软件需求相关的描述信息。基线的维护包括配置管理和状态维护两个方面。还有需求跟踪，控制变更等模块
    需求工程的过程管理：需求工程过程需要依赖的环境因素有市场特性，领域特性，技术成熟度，组织文化，项目特性等。需求工程过程的建立包括建立过程框架和选择工作组件两个步骤。需求工程过程需要专门特定的评价标准和改进方法。评价可以参照REGPG的66个实践。改进的实施步骤有评价当前过程，计划改进活动，培训参与人员，实现新过程，度量新过程，确定下一步行动等六个步骤。过程改进中需要注意以下事项：将需求工程过程放在软件过程的背景下实施改进，改进的实施要建立在现有过程的评价之上，过程的改进要针对目标，过程的改进要有计划，过程的改进应该是渐进和持续的。
    2、图书销售系统项目的发展建议
    随着时代的发展，信息技术/Internet技术、数据库技术的不断发展完善。网络进程的加快，传统的购物方式也越来越能满足人们快节奏的生活需求，电子商务的功能也越来越强大，注册用户可以在在网上搜索购买到自己想要的各种商品，初步让人们体会到了足不出户，便可以随意购物的快感。随着计算机的普及书店规模的不断扩大，使图书销售管理成为书店管理中的一个重要课题。通过图书销售管理系统可以解决书店管理中遇到的各种问题。
    但是在计算机网络技术的蓬勃发展，网络化和全球化已经成为世界不可抗拒的潮流，要想在这个快速发展的计算机时代生存，必须采取心得竞争手段和生存方式与适应它。就网上图书销售系统而言，对于读者来说，网上书店近在咫尺，并且不会关门，读者可以随时自由查阅和订购图书，读者无需亲临书店，只要坐在电脑旁，开机上网即可买到所需书籍，而且挑选的余地也大多了，检索也很方便，网上书店节省了大量上的时间，这对于那些没有时间逛书店或其住所离书店较远的读者来说，具有实际意义。因此网上书店必将有长足发展。
    我们的图书销售系统具有处理图书录入、图书销售、销售统计、查询库存等功能。在开发的时候尽可能的规范，减少后期代码查错的工作。在一些节假日可以适当的做一些折扣活动，以吸引顾客购买书籍。定期维护项目，要做好市场调研，以便随时了解顾客的需求以便对系统进行整改。客户满意的系统才能更好的在市场上生存。